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Cab Cabbon Judah, in the Shefelah ( Joshua 15:40).

Cabul (“little” ) 1. Asher ( Joshua 19:27; Josephus, vi. section 43,45). Modern site, miles East of Acre. 2. Region in Galilee given by king Solomon to Hiram, king of Tyre, which “pleased him not” ( 1 Kings 9:12,13; Josephus, Antiquities viii. 5, section 3).

Caddis Oldest brother of Judas Maccabaeus (1 Macc. 2:2).

Caesarea On the shore of the Great Sea, Northwest of Jerusalem 70 miles, and North of Joppa, on the ancient road from Tyre to Egypt (Jos. Wars, i. 21, section 5). The political capital of Palestine, and a very important city in the time of the apostles ( Acts 8:40; 9:30; 10:1. 24; 11:11; 12:19; 18:22; 21:8,16; 23:23,33; 25:1,4,6,13). In Strabo’s time there was at this place Strato’s Tower, and a landing-place; and Herod the Great, at immense cost, built an artificial breakwater and founded a city, B.C. 22. The seawall was built of very large blocks of stone,50 feet long, and extended into water of 120 feet depth, enclosing several acres, on which a large fleet could safely ride (Josephus, Antiquities xv. 9). Named, in honor of Augustus, Caesarea Sebaste (Josephus, Antiquities xvi. 5,1). Sometimes called C. Palestina, and C. Stratonis. Called Sebastos on coins. The residence of Philip, one of the 7 deacons of the early church, and the home of the historian Eusebius; the scene of some of Origen’s labors and the birthplace of Procopius. Was noted in the time of the Crusades. Is now utterly desolate. It was at Caesarea that Origen (A.D. 185-201), a man of great natural ability, collated the text of the Septuagint, Hebrew and other Greek versions, making a page of six columns, each version in its proper column, thus forming what was called the Hexapla — Six-ply version of the Scriptures, which is the most important contribution to Biblical literature in ancient times. Of some books he gave eight versions.

Caesarea Philippi (Pan). At the Southwest foot of Mount Hermon, on a broad terrace overlooking the Huleh plain; behind the mountain range rises in rugged bold peaks, wooded and capped with snow. Groves of evergreens, oaks and olives, hawthorns, myrtles, oleanders, and beautifully carpeted with grass. One of the chief sources of the Jordan River is in a cave near the castle, and pours out an abundance of water, spreading fertility in its course. Named by Philip in honor of Tiberius Caesar and himself. Agrippa II named it Neronias, after Nero. Titus exhibited gladiators there (Josephus, Wars 7.2 section 1). On the coins it is Caesarea Paneas. Its most ancient name is now known at the spot. The castle (Subeibeh) is of Phoenician work, and one of the largest in the land. Supposed to be Baal Gad ( Joshua 11:17) The charge to Peter was given here by Jesus ( Matthew 16:18), and near it was probably Transfiguration (17:1,2).

Caiaphas (“rock” or “depression” ) Joseph Caiaphas, high priest of the Jews, under Tiberius at the crucifixion — appointed by Valerius Gratus, A.D. 25, holding it until removed by Marcellus, A.D. 37. His long term indicates unusual power and fitness. Son-in-law of Annas. He pronounced judgment that Jesus was guilty of blasphemy ( Matthew 26:57-66), and uttered a prophesy of Jesus without being conscious of it. Cain (“acquisition” ) 1. The firstborn of the Adamic race. Son of Adam and Eve ( Genesis 4:1). Eve said, “I have got a man, by the help of Jehovah.” It is supposed that he worked in the field, and that his brother Abel kept the flocks. After the murder of Abel (through envy and jealousy) he went into the land of Nod (“wandering land”); saw a sign from heaven, and was assured that no attempt would be permitted against his life; he married Save, and built the city of Enoch. Society was thoroughly organized in his time, and we find such names as Zillah (“shadow”), Naamah (“pleasant”), and Adah (“oramental”); and Jabal living in tents; Jubal making musical instruments; Tubal Cain in the shop of the smith; Lamech composing poetry; while history and genealogy were carefully preserved. 2. . A place in Judah, in the mountains, near Zanoah and Gibeah ( Joshua 15:57). Cainan (“possessor” ) 1. Son of Enos. Great-grandson of Adam. Father of Mahalaleel. He died at the age of 910 ( Genesis 5:9; Luke 3:37). 2. Son of Arphaxad and father of Sala. The name is supposed to have been added to the genealogy for some reason by the scribes or some compiler.

Calah (“old age” ) One of the most ancient cities of Assyria, built by Asshur ( Genesis 10:11). ( 2 Kings 17:6). Shalmaneser carried Israel captive to this city. The Nimrud ruin, which has yielded vast quantities of Assyrian remains, is believed to be the ancient Calah, once capital of the empire.

Calcol (“sustenance” ) Son or descendant of Zerah ( 1 Chronicles 2:6).

Caldron A pot or kettle ( 2 Chronicles 35:13). Caleb (“dog” ) 1. The only one besides Joshua, of all those who left Egypt, who was permitted to enter Canaan. Son of Jephunneh, the Kenezite ( Joshua 14:14). not a Hebrew, but so adopted, and the city of Hebron was given to him as his portion. 2. Son of Hezron — Pharez — Judah — and father of Hur; his wives were Azubah, Jerioth and Ephrath, Ephah and Maachah. 3. Son of Hut. 4. . . Calf Image for worship made at Sinai in imitation of the Apis (Mnevis?) of Egypt, from the jewelry borrowed of the Egyptians ( Exodus 32:2). Not solid gold, but of wood, gilded or plated with gold (as the emblem of Osiris — Apis — was made). Moses burned the image as an allegorical act ( Job 15:16; Hosea 8:56; 10:6). Another was set up at Bethel, and one at Dan.

Calne (“fort of Ann” ), Calno, Calnah, Canneh, Assyria, on the East bank of the Tigris, opposite Seleucia ( Genesis 10:10), Ctesiphon, 200 miles below Nineveh, below Bagdad, 6 miles north of Babel. Tauk Kesra is its present name, and the ruins are very interesting.

Calisthenes Burnt by the Jews (2 Macc. 8:33).

Calphi Father of Judas (1 Macc. 11:70). Calvary (“a bare skull” ) Place of the crucifixion of Jesus. William C. Prime this year found a wall in Jerusalem which he thinks is the long-lost second wall of Josephus, running south of the so-called Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and so far proves the claim that the true site of calvary, and the sepulchre are known and in that church ( Matthew 27:33 Mark 15:22; Luke 23:33; John 19:17.) Camel (Hebrew: gamal ). Mentioned in Genesis 12:16; Exodus 9:3, as abundant ( Chronicles 14:15). Used as a means of traveling, especially across the desert ( 1 Kings 10:2), both for riding and for burdens; and also used in war. The coarse hair (shed in the spring) was made into tent-cloth, and heavy cloaks for rough weather, and used in the desert or open country ( Matthew 3:4); and the fine hair into the delicate “camel’s hair shawls.” Its meat was forbidden as food or sacrifice, because it does not divide the hoof. Many trinkets and ornaments are hung on the neck and sides of favorite camels ( Judges 8:21,26). Its foot is provided with pads under the two toes which do not easily sink in the sand; its nostrils can be closed against the dust or fine sand, or hot wind; its sharp, long teeth are exactly adapted to cut off the prickly shrubs of the desert; its hump is almost pure fat, which can be absorbed on a long journey, where food is scanty; and its stomach has several extra water-bags, holding many days supply. The desert would be uninhabitable without the camel (and the palm-tree).

Camel’s milk is a luxury much esteemed in the East. The swiftness of the dromedary (swift-camel) is proverbial, 900 miles in 8 days having been done.

Camon (“full of grain” ) ? (Antiquities v. 7, 6). Where Jair was buried ( Judges 10:5). Lost. Camphire Camphor ( Song of Solomon 1:14; Hebrew: kopher , Greek: kupros , Arabic: alcana . Lawsonia inermis, a privet, with clusters of delicate little lilac blossoms, and exquisite in perfume. The ladies wear them in their bosoms as a boquet. The dried leaves are mixed with citron juice and used to stain the nails and palms with a yellowish brown (rust color), very much liked (and is compelled by fashion), in the East. In Persia men also dye the nails. The hair is colored also, by adding indigo, black. Deuteronomy 21:12, should read “adorn her nails” instead of “pare her nails.” Cana (“the nest” ) Galilee ( John 2:1). 7 miles north of Nazareth. Scene of the first miracle of Christ, turning water into wine; and another, healing the son of a nobleman ( John 4:46-54). The native place of Nathanael, Bartholomew. Now called Kana el Jelil, and in ruins, occupying a beautiful side-hill overlooking the plain of Buttauf. (Robinson 2:346-9, 3:108). Howard Crosby, D.D. (Life of Jesus), decides in favor of Kefr Kenna, 4 miles Northeast of Nazareth. The text is equally explained by either place. Canaan (“bowed down” ) 4th son of Ham ( Genesis 10:6), progenitor of the Phoenicians. The word is also translated “traffickers” ( Isaiah 23:8) “merchant” (11), the land of traffic” ( Ezekiel 17:4), “merchant people” ( Zephaniah 1:11), and in scorn by Hosea ( Hosea 12:7), “he is a merchant; the balances of deceit are in his hand,” speaking of degenerate Israel. Ham, the younger son of Noah, behaved with indecent levity toward his father, becoming a shame and reproach to him in his old age, and so Ham was punished in his youngest son, for indecent levity, shameless profligacy, and insufferable abominations, have poisoned the whole line, taking the shape and plea of religion, the most hateful being worshiped as the most holy. Mount Lebanon is now the harbor of the most revolting types of idolatry, the relics of antiquity, Canaan (“lower country” ) That is, lower than Gilead. The ancient name of the country between the Jordan River and the Great Sea, extending from Hamath on the North to the desert below Beersheba on the South ( Genesis 12:5; 13:12; Zephaniah 2:5; Isaiah 19:18; Judges 3:1; Exodus 15:15). In Matthew 15:22, the name is applied to Philistia and Phoenicia, the lowlands.

Canaanite ( 1 ) Simeon the Zealot (Canaanite — from the Syriac kannean, of which the Greek is zelotes ).

Canaanite ( 2 ) 1. Dwellers in the land — lowland — as lower than Gilead. And again, dwellers in the lower lands of the plains by the sea; and in the Jordan River valley ( Numbers 13:29; Genesis 10:18-20). 2. Any people in the land not Hebrew ( Genesis 12:6; Numbers 21:3).

Candace (Greek: kandake ). Title of the queens of Meroe, whose capital was Napata. A prime minister from this court was converted by Philip, on his way back from Jerusalem to Ethiopia ( Acts 8:27). Queens of this country were sculptured on the ancient monuments, mentioned by Herodotus (Nitocris, ii. 100), Pliny (vi. 35), Strabo (xvii. 820), Dio Cassius (liv. 5), and Eusebius. Candle .

Candlestick . The only light of the tabernacle, and afterward of the temple, was that of the 7 lamps on the golden stand; or ten, according to 1 Kings 7:49, and one in 1 Macc. 1:23; 4:49; Wars 7:5. The only ancient figure we have of this is the sculpture on the Arch of Titus at Rome.

Cane (“reed, grass” ) A sweet-scented vernal grass, much valued for its perfume ( Isaiah 43:24; calamus (reed) in Song of Solomon 4:14. There is no notice of the sugar-cane.

Cankerworm .

Canon (“rule” ) The authoritative standard of religion and morals, composed only of divinely inspired writings, which have been added from the time of Moses to that of John. In making the selection of the books, the four conditions were kept in view: 1. Divine authority; 2. Entire and incorrupt work as made by the writer; 3. The whole complete as a rule, and guide; and 4. Therefore needing no further addition. The Holy Bible is then the only and supreme standard of religious truth and duty. The evidences are: The decision of the Church in council; the concurrent testimony of ancient Jewish and Christian writers; and the internal evidence of the books themselves. Inquiring, we wish to know: 1. Were the books written by their reputed authors? 2. Were the writers believed to be divinely inspired by their contemporaties? and 3. Have the books been kept as they were written, unchanged? In Exodus and the earlier books of the Old Testament, the term used for the Sacred Writings is “The Law”, or the “Book of the Covenant” ( Exodus 24:7). After the return from the captivity (about 400 B.C.) they are called recitations, or the words read or recited ( Nehemiah 8:8). They were also called “The Books” in Ecclesiasticus. Josephus, Philo, and the writers of the New Testament call them “Sacred Writings”, “Sacred Letters”, and “Scriptures” ( Matthew 21:42, 22:29; John 5:39; Acts 8:32,35; Romans 16:26; 2 Peter 1:20), and Paul, twice, “Holy Scriptures” ( Romans 1:2; 2 Timothy 3:15). After the New Testament was written, Jerome (A.D. 400) called them the Sacred Books (following 2 Macc. 2:13), the name “Bible” being first applied by Chrysostom A.D. 400, adding the title “Divine,” or, as we now write it, “Holy Bible.” The word Bible is Greek, and means “book.” The sacred book of Mohammed is called Koran — “the book” (i e., the thing to be read). The word “Scriptures” is Latin, and means writings. The Bible is divided into the Old and New Testaments ( 2 Corinthians 3:14), and according to the Canon (kanon , Greek, rule, meaning “The Catalogue of the Sacred Books”), consisting of 39 books in the Old and 27 in the New Testament. The Roman church adds 10 other books (or parts). The Old Testament collection was completed by Ezra, having been begun by the ancient patriarchs, continued by Moses ( Deuteronomy 31:9), by Joshua ( Joshua 24:26), by Samuel ( 1 Samuel 10:25), by David, Solomon, and others; and his arrangement has been preserved up to the present time. It was divided into three classes of writings: the Law (Torah), the Prophets (Nebiim), and the Psalms (Kethubim), ( Luke 24:4). Josephus names the same divisions (contra Apion i. 8). The first canon on record is that of Laodicea in Phrygia, A.D. 365, which-fixed the names and order and number of the books very much as we find them now. The Council of Hippo in 393, of Carthage in 419, in which Augustine (Bishop of Hippo), had great influence, held (A.D. 397) that the entire canon of Scripture is comprised in these books Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, 1 small book of Ruth, * * the 4 books of the Kingdoms, and 2 of the Remains. These are the historical books: Job, Tobit, Esther, Judith,2 books of Maccabees, and 2 books of Ezra. Next are the prophets; 1 book of the Psalms of David,3 of Solomon — viz., Proverbs Canticles, and Ecclesiastes. The 2 books Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus are called Solomon’s only because they resemble his writings, and they were written by Jesus, the son of Sirach, which are to be reckoned among the prophetic books. The rest are the prophets,12 of them being reckoned together as one book; and after these the four prophets of large volumes — Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel and Ezekiel. The New Testament was the same as now received. Apocrypal books of the New Testament age. , in his list of the sacred books, makes a distinction against certain ones which were doubtful or heretical, and which were: 1. The doubtful — Acts of Paul, Shepherd of Hermas, Apocalypse of Peter, Epistle of Barnabas, Doctrine of the Apostles, Gospel to the Hebrews. 2. The heretical — Gospels of Peter, Thomas, Matthias and others; the Acts of Andrew, John, Epistle of Clement, and others. The oldest version in any language of which there is a record, is the Septuagint, written in Greek, at Alexandria, Egypt, B.C. 286-280. The oldest known copy of this version is written on thin vellum, contains the whole Bible, and is dated in the 5th century, now in the British Museum, and is called the Codex Alexandrinus. The Codex Vaticanus is a manuscript in the Vatican Library, Rome; contains the whole Bible, except a few lost leaves, and belongs to the 4th century. The Codex Sinaiticus was found in the Convent on Mount Sinai. It belongs to the 6th century, but is a copy of one of an earlier date. Besides the Old and New Testament, it has the Gospel and Epistles of Barnabas and the Epistle of Hermas. Fragments of the Gospel are contained in a palimpsest manuscript in a library at Wolfenbuttel, Germany, where the ancient Greek letters have been scraped off, and a modern text written over them. A specimen, in the book, is from a copy in the library of Trinity College, Dublin, a palimpsest, and belongs to the 6th century. It is dated A.D. (about), and shows a very neat and clear text, as well as all the others. The oldest Hebrew manuscript known is dated A.D. 489; is a roll, and was found in the Karaite Synagogue in the Crimea. The specimen given in the book is from a Pentateuch written on a roll of leather, preserved in Odessa, originally brought from Derbend, in Daghestan. It was “corrected” in 580, and therefore probably written some time before. There is another specimen of an ancient Hebrew letter used about the time that Paul was a pupil of Gamaliel. There is a copy from a gravestone in the Crimea, of the year A.D. 6. This style of letter is like that on the coins of the Maccabees, B.C. 139, and other coins down to A.D. 130, given in the chapter on Coins. We have records of Origen’s work, in which he placed side-by-side six different versions of each book of the Bible, thus forming the most valuable contribution to the critical study of the Scriptures known to scholars; but no specimen of his manuscript is extant. The oldest known MSS. in our own, or the Anglo-Saxon language, is the Durham Bible, dated A.D. 688. The oldest printed Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was issued in Soncino, Italy, A.D. 1487, in folio. The Complutensian Polyglott was published at the expense of Cardinal Ximenes in 1514-1522, in volumes, folio, and sold at 6 1/2 ducats. The Hebrew Vulgate, and Greek texts of the Old Testament (with the Latin translation of the Greek), were printed in three parallel columns; the Targum of Onkelos, with a Latin translation on two columns below. The oldest known version in the Latin language is the Vulgate (current text), which was the work of Jerome, A.D. 385-420, while he lived at Bethlehem. Tertullian (160-245) mentions a Latin version, but there is nothing known of any belonging to his age. The first book printed was the Bible, in Latin; and the splendid pages of the Mazarin Vulgate, printed by Gutenburg and Fust in 1455, at Mainz, are not surpassed at this day as specimens of typography.

Canopy Curtain over a bed (Judith 10:21). .

Canticles Song of Solomon. Capernaum (“village of Nahum” ) On the Northwest shore of the Lake of Galilee. The scene of many of the works of Christ. Not mentioned in the Old Testament or the Apocrypha. Site now located at Tell Hum, where there are ruins of a magnificent synagogue, with beautiful specimens of columns, some of which are double; cornices and massive walls; and a great extent of ruins, half a mile long by a quarter wide. The home of Jesus after leaving Nazareth on being rejected ( Mark 2:1). Here Matthew was chosen ( Matthew 9:10). Simon, Peter and Andrew belonged here ( Mark 1:29). (For the miracles wrought here, see ). The son of the nobleman was healed here by words spoken at Cana. The woes denounced against this city and others near it have been so literally fulfilled that even their sites cannot be determined (Stanly, South and P., chapter 10; Rob. ii, 403-404, iii, 344-358). Mentioned by Josephus (Wars, iii, 10 sec. 8). Wilson, Lands of the Bible (ii. 139, 149). The Palestine Exploration has this last year added new facts to the evidence in favor of Tell Hum being the true site. (The Recovery of Jerusalem, p. 265, etc.)

Caphar A village ( 1 Chronicles 27:25).

Caphar-sal-ama A place where a battle was fought between Judas and Nicanor (1 Macc. 7:31).

Caphenatha A place on the East of Jerusalem (1 Macc. 12:37).

Caphtor , . Mentioned three times as the origin of the Philistines ( Deuteronomy 2:23; Jeremiah 47:4; Amos 9:7). By some supposed to be an ancient name of a part of Egypt. in hieroglyphics.

Cappadocia Asia Minor ( Acts 2:9; 1 Peter 1:1; Josephus, Antiquities xii, 3, sec. 4). The road from Palestine passed through the famous Cilician Gates, which led through Mount Taurus. It is an elevated table-land divided by chains of mountains, well watered but scantily wooded. Mazaca, afterward called Caesarea, was the Roman capital, and at the base of Mount Argaeus, the highest in Asia Minor. The people were mixed, Scythian and Persian. Captain Some times a civil and at others a military chief is meant. The Lord is called the captain of his people’s salvation ( Hebrews 2:10). Captivity The Hebrews reckon four captivities: Babylonian, Median, Grecian and Roman. The expatriation of the people belongs to two periods only — the first and second captivity. In the first — the Babylonian — the best of the nation were carried to Assyria. They were not slaves, but were free under their own civil laws (they would not obey the divine law of ceremonies away from the temple, and it is thought that the custom of building synagogues in every city arose during the captivity), and were ruled by their own elders ( Ezekiel 14:1; 20:1), and held slaves themselves (Tobit 8:18); while some filled high offices at the court, as Mordecai and Daniel. This event occupied, from beginning to end, 150 years, ending B.C. 588. Judah was carried away captive by Nebuchadnezzar about a hundred years after the first deportation of Israel (Jeremiah 52). The decree of Cyrus granting the return of the Jews, was dated B.C. 536. A part of the people, under Zerubbabel, returned B.C. 535; and more under Ezra B.C. 458; and of others, under Nehemiah, B.C. 445. The return thus extending over a period of 145 years. (See Nehemiah, Ezra, Haggai and Zechariah). The number of those who remained in Assyria was about six times those who returned to Jerusalem, and they were known in the time of Christ as the ( John 7:35; James 1:1). Besides those who remained in Assyria, there were many Jews who fled into Egypt ( Zechariah 10:6-10), and into Arabia, settling in Yemen (Sheba). After this time the were lost to history. It is supposed that they intermarried with each other and with the people among whom they lived, and so became lost as distinct tribes, or even as a people. During and after the captivity the Jews laid aside their prejudices, forgot their special tribal pride, and became one nation ( Isaiah 11:13; Ezekiel 37:22); and since that time no one of them is able to trace his lineage to any particular tribe, but may reasonably claim to have the blood of the whole twelve mingled in his veins. So Paul seems to have felt ( Acts 26:7) when pleading before Agrippa.

Carbuncle ( Isaiah 54:12 ). .

Carcass One of the seven princes of Ahasuerus ( Esther 1:10).

Carchemish (“fort of Chemosh” ) Assyria ( Isaiah 10:9). By Euphrates ( Jeremiah 46:2; 2 Chronicles 25:20). Assyrian inscriptions discovered in modern times show it to have been a chief city of the Hittites, from B.C. 1100 to B.C. 850, who were masters of Syria. Taken by Pharaoh Necho, B.C. 608, and 3 years after by Nebuchadnezzar.

Caria Southwest in Asia Minor.

Carmanians People of Carmania, north of the Persian Gulf (2 Esdras 15:30).

Careah Father of Johanan ( 2 Kings 25:23). Carmel (“park — fruitful field” ) A mountain range branching off to the northwest from the mountains of Samaria,15 miles long, 2 to 4 wide, and 600 to 1,800 feet high, ending in a steep cape far out into the Great Sea, dividing the plain of Acre from Sharon ( Joshua 12:22, 19:26; Jeremiah 46:18). The plain of Esdraelon lies east, and the river Kishon washes its north side. No part of Palestine equals it in picturesque beauty and variety of scenery, the luxuriance of its herbage, and the brilliance and variety, and abundance of its flowers ( Isaiah 35:2; Song of Solomon 7:5). There are many deep ravines, which abound in partridges, quails, woodcock, hares, jackals, wolves, hyenas, and wild-boars; and it is said, anciently also lions and bears. There are many caves in the vicinity of the convent, which were once occupied by hermits; and one of these is said to be the one referred to in 1 Kings 18:4; and also see Amos 9:3. The chief incident in its history is Elijah’s sacrifice, the site of which is now located at el Mukrakah (“the burning — the sacrifice”), on a rock terrace, Tell el Kusis (“hill of the priests”), at the east end; from which was seen the whole of the plain of Esdraelon, the river Kishon, Gilboah with Jezreel at its base, Jezebel’s temple and Ahab’s palace in full view, the sea being hid by the hill to the west, up which the servant could climb in a few minutes and see the sea in its entire expanse ( 1 Kings 18:30; 2 Kings 4:23). Pythagoras visited it, and Vespasian, the emperor, came to consult the oracle of Carmel. Elijah was sitting on the mountain when the “fifties” were sent by Ahaziah to take him prisoner for stopping his messengers to Baal at Ekron, and two bands were consumed by fire from heaven ( 2 Kings 1:9-15). After the ascent of Elijah, Elisha went to reside on Carmel for a time ( 2 Kings 2:25), and was here when the woman from Shunem found him, and told him of her son’s death ( 2 Kings 4:25). Called now Jebel Mar Elias. The convent was built A.D. 1830, over ancient ruins, and is famous for having been founded by Louis of France, and its name given to the Barefoot Carmelite Friars. 2. Judah,6 miles southeast of Hebron. City of Nabal ( 1 Samuel 25:2), and of Abigail, David’s favorite wife ( 1 Samuel 27:3), where Saul set up a “place” after his victory over Amalek ( 1 Samuel 25:12), and Uzziah had vineyards ( 2 Chronicles 26:10). It is mentioned by Jerome and Eusebius as having a Roman garrison; and in the history of the Crusades, A.D. 1172. The heaps of ruins now called Kurmul, lie around the sloping sides of an oval valley, the head of which is shut in by rocky ridges. The castle (Kasr el Birkeh) had walls 10 feet thick of beveled stones,60 feet long, 40 wide, and 30 high. Near it was a round tower, and there are the remains of several churches, one of which was 150 by 50 feet. There is a fine reservoir of sweet water supplied from springs near (Van de Velde).

Carmelite Of Carmel in the mountains of Judah ( 1 Chronicles 11:37).

Carmelitess Woman of Carmel in Judah ( 1 Samuel 27:3).

Carmi (“a vine-dresser” ) 1. Father of Achan ( Joshua 12:1,18). 2. 4th son of Reuben ( Genesis 46:9).

Carmites Of Reuben ( Numbers 26:6).

Carnaim In the land of Galaad, Gilead. Ashteroth Karnaim. Carpenter Since wood was always too scarce and precious in Palestine for any use besides for doors, windows, etc., and for decorations, the carpenter was probably a carver of such finishing as is now seen in the best rooms of the East.

Carpus A disciple at Troas with whom Paul left his cloak ( 2 Timothy 4:13), books and parchments. He is mentioned as bishop of Berytus in Thrace by Hippolytus.

Carriage This word means “baggage” in the King James Version.

Carshena One of the seven princes ( Esther 1:14).

Cart Wagon. Were open or covered ( Numbers 7:3), and used to carry persons and burdens ( Genesis 45:19; 1 Samuel 6:7), or produce ( Amos 2:13). There were no roads, and the only ones now in use have been lately made, from Joppa to Jerusalem, and from Beirut to Damascus.

Carving Carving and engraving have always been much used for the decoration of houses, furniture, arms, jewelry, etc. The occupation of Joseph was that of a carver and not a carpenter, as wood has always been too scarce and expensive to use in the framework of houses.

Casiphia Place between Babylon and Jerusalem ( Ezra 8:17).

Casleu (1 Macc. 1:54 ).

Casluhim Mizraite people ( Genesis 10:14). In Upper Egypt. Bochart thinks they were the Colchians of the Greeks.

Casphon (1 Macc. 5:36 ).

Casphor Fortified city in the land of Galaad (1 Macc. 5:26). The Jews took refuge there from the Ammonites.

Caspis A strong, fortified city. Was taken by Judas Maccabaeus (2 Macc. 12:13,16).

Cassia One of the principal spices in the composition of the “oil of holy ointment” ( Exodus 30:25); a choice perfume. Also, an article among the precious merchandise of Tyre ( Ezekiel 27:19).

Castor and Pollux (sons of Jupiter ), ( Acts 28:11 ). Name of the vessel in which Paul sailed from Malta to Rome; derived from the name of the two stars called “the twins,” the fabled sons of Jupiter and Leda.

Cats (Baruch 6:22 ). The cat was a favorite of the Egyptians, and is found embalmed among their mummies.

Caterpillar Cathua (1 Esdras 5:30).

Caul A head-dress, made in checker-work; long, like a scarf; worn by women for ornament.

Cause-way Raised path ( 1 Chronicles 26:16,18). Cave Mentioned in the early history as often useful to men. There are a great number in the limestone region of Palestine and Syria, many of which have been cut out larger for shelter or defense. Several Hebrew words are used to denote caves, holes and fissures, and many places were named from noted caves, and some people, as the Horites (caveites), were so named from their dwellings. The great cave near Aleppo will hold 3000 horsesoldiers. Maundrell described a large system of caves, containing rooms, near Sidon. Lot is the first who is recorded as living in a cave. The cave of Machpelah is the first mentioned as a burial-place. Other noted caves were Makkedah (five kings taken in by Joshua); Adullam (where David cut Saul’s skirt off); and in Josephus, the famous robber-caves of Arbela, near Gennesaret.

Cedar (Hebrew: erez; Arabic: [^arz, “the latch” ) There are eleven groves of cedars on the Lebanon mountains, which have been visited by travelers recently. One, near the highest peak, 6,000 feet above the sea, Northeast of Beirut, and long famous for its 400 ancient trees of immense size, standing near the summits, which are covered with perpetual snow; the second, near Deir El Kamr. The six largest of this northern group measured, in 1868, 48, 40, 38, 33 1/2, 30, 29 3/4 feet; and a third, near Ain Zehalteh, on the Beirut-Damascus stage road, lately found. Dr. Robert Morris recently brought several camel loads of cones from these trees for distribution among Sunday School students. The references to cedar-wood in the Scripture do not always mean the cedar of Lebanon — as, for instance, when at Sinai ( Leviticus 12:6). The word means also pine, cyprus, fir and juniper. Henry H. Jessup, an American missionary in Syria, thinks the whole range of Lebanon, from 3,000 to 7,000 feet altitude, was at one time covered with cedar groves. Cedron 1. Near Jamnia and Azotus; fortified by Antiochus Sidetes. 2. Kidron, the torrent east of Jerusalem, which see.

Ceilan (1 Esdras 5:15 ). Ceiling The ceilings of the principal apartments in Eastern houses are the parts on which the chief care is expended in adorning. The Jews bestowed much care on these parts in their houses ( Jeremiah 22:14; Haggai 1:4).

Cenchreae Harbor of Corinth, on the Saronic Gulf, east, whence Paul sailed for Ephesus ( Acts 18:18). There was a church here, of which was a member ( Romans 16:1), and Lucius its first bishop, appointed by Paul. There was a temple at the end of each mole, and a statue of Neptune on a rock between, as may be seen on an ancient coin of Corinth.

Cendebeus correctly One of Antiochus’ generals in Palestine (1 Macc. 15:38 ff). Censer A small portable vessel of metal, fitted to contain burning coals ( Chronicles 26:18; Luke 1:9). Centurion Captain of 100. A Roman military officer. Cornelius, a centurion, was one of the first disciples. Several others are mentioned.

Ceras (1 Esdras 5:29 ). Cetab (1 Esdras 5:30 ).

Chabris Son of Gothoniel (Judith 6:15; 8:10; 10:6).

Chadias (1 Esdras 5:20 ). Chaff ( Isaiah 5:24; 33:11 ). The carrying away of chaff by the wind in Scripture is used as a symbol of the destruction of the wicked ( Isaiah 17:13). Chain Chains were in use by the ancients; they were made of precious metal for ornaments, and were worn alike by men and women — of iron for other purposes. The gold chain given to Joseph ( Genesis 12:42), and the one promised to Daniel ( Daniel 5:7), were the first mentioned.

Chalce-do-ny Chalcol ( 1 Kings 4:31 ).

Chalk ( Isaiah 27:9 ). Limestone.

Chaldaea ; (“Khaldi in Armenian, the moon”) Babylonia — the whole, or sometimes the southern part ( Daniel 5:30; 9:1; Genesis 11:28). Haran died in Ur of Casdim ( Ezekiel 1:3). The whole of Mesopotamia occupied by Chaldeans. The Chaldeans were one out of many Cushite tribes peopling Babylonia. Hence came Sabaeans to afflict Job (1:15-17). Recently discovered inscriptions on ancient works show that there were two languages in use: one a Semitic, for civil purposes, and another a Cushite, for learned and religious purposes ( Daniel 1:4; 5:11). The Chaldeans were priests, magicians or astronomers — the depositaries of learning and science. The plains were formerly irrigated by canals led from the river, spread over the country like a network. Groves of palm-trees, pleasant gardens, fields of grain and vineyards, proved the richness of the soil, and supported a dense population. It is now a waste of drifting dust and sand, with heaps of bricks and rubbish ( Isaiah 14:23; Jeremiah 50:38). The chief cities were Accad, Babel, Borsippa, Calneh, Cutha, Erech, Sippara and Toredon. Herodotus mentions a vast number of cities, and the mounds over all the country prove his statements true. Chambers of Imagery Used by Ezekiel ( Ezekiel 8:12) in denouncing the idolatrous corruptions of the kingdom of Judah, or that part which imitated the Egyptians in painting on the walls of a chamber pictures of idols, etc., for worship. (See Wilkinson’s Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians). Every man has a chamber in his own mind filled with his idols — his dearest objects of regard. Chamber-ing ( Romans 13:13 ). Chamber-lain Erastus, “the chamberlain.” An officer who had charge of a king’s lodgings and wardrobe ( 2 Kings 23:11).

Chameleon (Hebrew: ko-ach, “strength” ) There are two lizards, each of which has been proposed as the animal meant. Lizards are very plentiful in Palestine and Egypt. 1. The chameleon is noted for its strong grasp, by which it sustains its position for a long time on twigs and branches. The normal color is black or slaty, but can be changed in an instant to many other tones, as green, yellow, spotted, which changes seem to be independent of the will of the animaL 2. The Nile Monitor is sometimes called the land crocodile, being about feet in length. It eats the eggs and young of the crocodile.

Chamois A specie of wild goat found in Arabia ( Deuteronomy 14:5).

Champaign (“a plain” ) ( Deuteronomy 11:30 ).

Chanaan ( Judges 5:39,10 ).

Chanaanite ( Judges 5:16 ).

Chancellor ( Ezra 4:8,9,17 ).

Chanel-bone ( Job 26:22 ). The bone of the arm above the elbow.

Changers ( Judges 2:15 ). Changers of money A class who made a business, in accommodating the temple worshipers at the annual feasts of the Jews, by exchanging the money of those who came from foreign countries for the half-shekel which was the lawful tribute to the treasury. They probably crept gradually nearer the temple until they occupied the corners and passages of the sacred courts. From these Jesus drove them, because no trading was lawful there, and certainly not dishonest, sharp practices, which had made God’s house a “den of thieves.”

Channuneus (1 Esdras 8:48).

Chanoch ( Genesis 4:17).

Chapel (a holy place, sanctuary ). Idol’s temple (1 Macc. 1:47). Bethel was crowded with altars ( Amos 3:14).

Chapiter The upper part of a pillar ( Exodus 38:17).

Chapmen Traders ( 2 Chronicles 9:14). Foot-peddlers, Charaathalar (1 Esdras 5:36 ).

Characa A place east of Jordan River (2 Macc. 12:17). Lost.

Chara-shim, The Valley of A place settled by Joab 2 ( 1 Chronicles 4:14), and reinbabited by Benjamites after the captivity ( Nehemiah 11:35).

Charchamis (1 Esdras 1:25 ). .

Charchemis ( 2 Chronicles 35:20 ).

Charcus (1 Esdras 5:32 ). Charea (1 Esdras 5:32). Charger (Hebrew: agartal ). 1. Basin in Ezra 1:9, that is, a tank for catching the blood from the victims on the altar. 2. deep dishes ( Numbers 7:13). 3. a tray, or server, of wood inlaid, or of metal (such as is now used for the common table), ( Matthew 14:8). Chariot Hebrew: merkabah , and rekeb , and agaloth for “war-chariots”, or “wagons” or “carts”. The Egyptian monuments present paintings of several kinds of chariots, all of two wheels only, differing chiefly in the ornaments. The king’s was different only in being more richly ornamented, and as having the king alone — as a sign that to him belonged the entire glory of the victory. In the Assyrian sculptures are some 4-wheeled carriages. Three persons usually ride in them — the king, his umbrella-bearer, and the charioteer. The Persian chariots were heavier than those of Egypt or Assyria. Charity Greek: agape , which is properly “love” ( 1 Corinthians 8:1,13; Luke 11:42; Romans 5:5,8.) Charmis Son of Meichiel; one of the three rulers of Bethulia ( Judges 6:15).

Charran ( Acts 7:2,4). Chaste-ba (1 Esdras 5:31 ).

Chavah ( Genesis 3:20 ). Eve. Chebar (“great river” ) Chaldea ( Ezekiel 1:3 ). Some of the Jews were located here during the captivity ( Ezekiel 1:1,3, 3:15; 2 Kings 24:15). This was the largest artificial canal of Babylonia, and was cut by the Jewish captives.

Chedorlaomer (Genesis 14 ). King of Elam, perhaps a part of Persia and Media. His marauding excursion, aided by four other kings, was brought to an abrupt and disastrous end by Abraham.

Cheese There is no Hebrew word for cheese. The three words translated cheese are: 1. Hebrew: gebinah , curdled milk ( Job 10:10); 2. charitse hechalab , slices of curds ( 1 Samuel 17:18); 3. shephoth bakar , curd rubbed fine — of kine ( 2 Samuel 17:29).

Cheese now in use in the East is in small round cakes (4 inches), white, very salt, and hard. The Bedouins coagulate buttermilk, dry it, and grind to powder.

Chellal Son of Pahath-moab ( Ezra 10:30).

Chelcias 1. Of Baruch (Baruch 1:1). 2. High Priest (Baruch 1:7) 3. Father of Susanna (Susanna 2:29,63).

Chellians ( Judges 2:23 ). Chelluh (“strong” ) Son of Bani ( Ezra 10:35).

Chellus Place west of the Jordan River ( Judges 1:9).

Chelod (corrupted text in Judges 1:6 ).

Chelub (“basket” ) 1. Father of Mehir, of Judah ( 1 Chronicles 4:11). 2. Father of Ezri, David’s officer ( 1 Chronicles 27:26).

Che-lubai Caleb, son of Hezron ( 1 Chronicles 2:9) Chemarim (idol-priests ). An ascetic; one who goes about dressed in black ( Zephaniah 1:4). Idolatrous priests in 2 Kings 23:5. Priests of false worship ( Hosea 10:5). Chemosh (“subduer” ) The national god of the Moabites ( 1 Kings 11:7; Jeremiah 48:7), who were called the people of Chemosh ( Numbers 21:29). Also of the Ammonites, though Moloch was afterward their god (Jeremiah 49). Moloch and Chemosh may mean the same god, who might have been also called Baal Peor. Traces of the same worship are found at Babylon, Tyre, and it was introduced among the Hebrews by Solomon, who built a high place on the Mount of Offense, so named for that act. The Arabs worshiped a black stone as his emblem — as a black stone in the Kaaba at Mecca is an emblem now worshiped by all Muslims. This idol represented some of the planets: perhaps Saturn.

Chenaan ( Genesis 9:18 ). Chenaanah 1. Son of Bilhan, a Benjamite ( 1 Chronicles 7:10). 2. Father of Zedekiah ( 1 Kings 22:11,24).

Chenani A Levite ( Nehemiah 9:4).

Chenaniah Chief of the Levites ( 1 Chronicles 15:22,27).

Chephar-Haammonai (village of the Ammonites ); a city of Benjamin ( Joshua 18:24).

Chephirah (“the village” ) Benjamin (Joshua 9: 17). East of Yalo, two miles. Kefir (Rob., iii. 146). The Gibsonites of this place (and also Kirjath Jearim and Beeroth) played the trick on Joshua mentioned in Joshua 9:3, which led him to make a treaty with them.

Cheran Son of Dishon ( Genesis 36:26).

Chereas Brothers of Timotheus; governor of Gazara where he was slain by the Jews (2 Macc. 10:32,37).

Cherethim Cherethims; plural of Cherethites ( Ezekiel 25:16).

Cherethites and Pelethites Body-guard of David. No other king had one, that is recorded, but they had runners. Their captain was Benaiah the son of Jehoiadah ( 2 Samuel 8:18). Under Solomon, Benaiah was made general instead of Joab. The names are of Philistine origin, and the men may have been partly of Philistine and partly of Hebrew (refugee) origin, attached to David in his adversity, and rewarded by him in his prosperity.

Cherith The brook Cherith, in a valley now called Kelt, running by Jericho to the Jordan River ( 1 Kings 17:3,5; Josephus, Antiquities viii. 13, section 2). Some have supposed that it must be looked for on the east of the Jordan River.

Cherub (“mystic figure on the ark” ) Cherubim, plural. A keeper, warder or guard of the Deity. Josephus said no one in his day could even conjecture the shape of the cherubim that Solomon made for the Holy of Holies (Antiquities viii. 3, 3). They were of wood, gilded, and 15 feet high ( 1 Kings 6:23). Ezekiel describes them as having each four faces and four wings; but he gives only two faces (or it may be but one) to those in the temple on the walls. The cherubim of Revelation 4:7,8, are living creatures, with one body, four faces full of eyes, and six wings. The fourfold combination was of man, lion, ox, and eagle. Monstrous combinations of this kind are figured and sculptured both in Assyria and Egypt. These combined forms are symbolical of united powers; the lion of strength, royal majesty; the ox of patient industry; wings of swiftness, quickness, and the human head the intelligence to guide all these for one purpose; and thus showing that the divine government is sustained by intelligence, power, patience, and speed. They were servants of God, and they were ministers of vengeance ( Ezekiel 10:7; Revelation 15:7), and attendants of the heavenly king, praising and extolling the wonders of his grace ( Revelation 5:11), and thus always nearest to God, “in the midst of the throne” ( Revelation 4:4-6), while others as angels and elders were round about the throne. They are especially called living creatures (Ezekiel and John), and so full of eyes, the peculiar sign of life. The cherubim were designed as symbols of faith and hope to man, pointing to the possibility of man attaining to the highest and holiest places. ( for picture of the Sphinx, and for winged figures).

Chesalon (“flank” ) Judah ( Joshua 15:10). Now Kesla, 7 miles west of Jerusalem.

Chesed (increase ). Son of Nahor ( Genesis 20:22 ).

Chesil Simeon ( Joshua 15:30). Near the desert, south.

Chest (Hebrew: aron and genazim ). Meaning Ark of the Covenant, Joseph’s coffin, and the contribution box in the temple. Treasuries in Esther 3:9.

Chestnut tree In the King James Version ( Genesis 30:37; Ezekiel 31:8) the translation of the Hebrew: aron the plane tree. In Ecclus 24:14, wisdom is a plane tree by the water.

Chesulloth (“loins” ) Issa. Between Jezreel and Shunem ( Joshua 19:18). Iksal? Chisloth Tabor?

Chettim (1 Macc. 1:1).

Chezib (“false” ) Birthplace of Shelah ( Genesis 38:5). . A fountain and ruins 10 miles southwest of Beit Jibrin. Chidon (“javelin” ) Near Kirjath Jearim ( 1 Chronicles 13:9; 2 Samuel 6). An accident happened here to the ark while on its way to Jerusalem. Chickens (2 Esdras 1:30; Matthew 23:37 ). Child Were regarded as God’s gifts. Parents were bound to teach them their own faith and fit them to occupy the place of true members of the covenant ( Genesis 18:19; Deuteronomy 6:7; 11:19), and required of children a kind of sacred reverence, sanctioned in the Decalogue; the parent standing to his children as God does to the parent. At five the child was placed under the father’s special care, and at twelve the son was called the son of the law. Very severe laws regulated the conduct of the child and punished misconduct ( Leviticus 19:3; Exodus 21:15,17; Deuteronomy 27:16), in the father as well as the son ( Deuteronomy 21:21). Property descended to the sons in equal shares, the oldest having a double portion, no wills being necessary. The child might be sold for a debt of the parent ( 2 Kings 4:1; Isaiah 1:1; Nehemiah 5:5), until the year of jubilee. The word child also means a person noted for certain qualities, as “children of the world” — selfish; “children of light” having religion; “child of song,” a good singer.

Chilion (“sickly” ) Son of Elimelech. An Ephrathite ( Ruth 1:2-5; 4:9).

Chilmad On the Euphrates; mentioned by Xenophon (Anabasis i. 5, 10). Had traffic with Tyre ( Ezekiel 27:23).

Chilham (longing ). Son of Barzillai — returned with David ( Samuel 19:37,38,40; Jeremiah 41:17 ). Chinnereth Naph. Fortified city ( Joshua 19:35). Lost. It is a question which was named first, the lake or the city. Gennesar is a proper change of the same name. .

Chios Island in the Aegean Sea,5 miles from the shore of Asia Minor, 32 miles long, 8 to 18 miles wide (Acts 20—21).

Chislon (confidence — hope ). Father of Elidad, the prince of Benjamin ( Numbers 34:21).

Chisloth-Tabor (“loins — flanks” ) West end of Mount Tabor ( Joshua 19:12). Iksal?

Chittim, Kittim (“maritime” ) Josephus says it was Cyprus. Mentioned many times ( Genesis 10:4; 1 Chronicles 1:7; Numbers 24:24). Fleets from Tyre sailed there ( Isaiah 23:1,12; Jeremiah 2:10). Cedar or box-wood was got there ( Ezekiel 27:6). Some suppose the name means all the islands settled by the Phoenicians, as Crete, the Cyclades, etc. Chloe (verdant — short ). A disciple mentioned by Paul ( Corinthians 1:11 ).

Choba Ephraim ( Judges 4:4). (15:4,5). Hobah?

Chorashan (“smoking furnace” ) Visited or haunted by David ( 1 Samuel 30:30). May be the of Simeon, south of Hebron ( Joshua 15:42). Chorazin One of the cities in which the mighty works of our Lord were done ( Matthew 11:21; Luke 10:13), 2 miles from Capernaum. Supposed to he Kerazeh,a small Arab village 3 miles inland from Tell Hum. The woes pronounced upon this city have come to pass. Its site even is doubtful.

Chozeba ( 1 Chronicles 4:22). Christ Title of Jesus as the Messiah. . Christian Followers of the highest and best known divine laws as taught by Jesus Christ. The name Christian was given to the disciples of Jesus at Antioch by the Greeks in derision, in the reign of Claudius. They were before that called Nazarenes and Galileans.

Chronology The chronology of the Bible is that of the Jews and their ancestors, from the earliest records to the end of the writing of the New Testament. Since the Bible is not a complete history of the whole time it represents, nor of the whole world, it must not be expected to have a continuous chronology. Designed alterations by bad men and careless copying have changed many points, and have made it necessary to exercise the greatest care in determining and correcting the errors. The Jews were not a mathematical people, or scientific in any respect, and computed the year by observation only. The Egyptians and Chaldees were far in advance of the Hebrews in science, and attained to a high standard of mathematical knowledge and chronological computation. The observation of the moon was the basis of the year’s reckoning. Messengers were stationed on the heights around Jerusalem, on the 30th day of the month, to announce the appearance of the new moon, who reported to the Sanhedrin. This custom, among the Jews, was older than Moses, as appears in the regulation of it in Numbers 28:11. The year was made of twelve moons; and every fourth or fifth year a month was added at the end of the year, after the month Adar, called Veadar, Second Adar. The sacred year began with the month Nisan, in which Moses brought Israel out of Egypt ( Exodus 12:2; Esther 3:7). The civil year began as now, with the month Tishri, which was supposed to be the month of the creation. The year was also dated from the king’s reign, as in Esther, Chronicles, Kings, etc.; from the building of King Solomon’s temple; and from the beginning of the Babylonian captivity. The week was of seven days, ending with the Sabbath. The Egyptians and Greeks divided the month into periods of ten days, called decades. The day was divided into night and day: thus, in Genesis 1:5, “the evening and the morning were the first day.” The evening began at sunset, the morning at sunrise. There were four divisions of the day in common use — evening, morning, double light (noon), and half night (midnight). The night was divided into watches, the first and the second. A middle watch is mentioned once in Judges 7:19; and the morning watch in Exodus 14:24, and 1 Samuel 11:11. Four night-watches were adopted from the Romans in later times ( Mark 8:35). The day and the night were divided into 12 hours each ( Daniel 4:19,33). The Egyptians divided the day and night into hours from about 1200 B.C. The division into 24 hours was unknown before the fourth century B.C. The most common usage was to divide the day by the position of the sun, as the Arabs do now. The length of the day was longer in summer than in winter, and the hour longer in proportion. There were many contrivances for measuring time, such as dials, gnomons and clepsydrae, which had long been known by other nations. The day was divided into four parts only for the Temple service ( Acts 2:15; 3:1; 10:9). The Sabbath (a day of rest), at the end of the week, was kept up by the patriarchs, and continued by the law of Moses, as a memorial of the deliverance from Egypt (Deuteronomy 5), and was a day of joy and rejoicing. The morning and evening sacrifice in the Temple were doubled, the shewbread changed for fresh, the law was publicly read and expounded; and this custom, simple at first, finally developed into the grand ceremonials of the Synagogue, especially under Ezra, after the return from Babylon. The resurrection of our Lord Jesus, the Christ, occurred on the FIRST day of the week (John 20), and several of his appearances to his friends and disciples happening on that day also, the day of Pentecost in that year fell on that day, when the miraculous gift of tongues prepared the apostles for their peculiar work among all nations; therefore it was adopted as the day for stated meetings of the believers, and called the Lord’s day. The seventh day, the seventh month, the seventh year, and the (the 49th or 50th), were sacred, and had their festivals and privileges. The seventh month contained the , the and the (which was the most joyful of all the Hebrew festivals), and the opening of the New Year. On the seventh year the land was to rest ( Exodus 23:10), in which no field was to be tilled nor vineyard dressed, nor even grain gathered that had sowed itself, nor grapes plucked. All debts were released. The Sabbatical year completed the Sabbatical scale. It began on the seventh month, and was marked by high and holy occupation, connected with sacred reflection, and was completed in the . It is quite certain that the year of jubilee was the 49th. It was to begin on the tenth day of the seventh month, at the sound of a horn (trumpet) all through the land (Leviticus 25). The