INTRODUCTION The Book of Proverbs bears the external title mish|leey ceeper , which it derives from the words with which it commences. It is one of the three books which are distinguished from the other twenty-one by a peculiar system of accentuation, the best exposition of which that has yet been given is that by S. Baer, (Note: Cf. Outlines of Hebrew Accentuation, Prose and Poetical, by Rev. A. B. Davidson, D.D., Professor of Hebrew, Free Church College, Edinburgh, 1861, based on Baer's Torath Emeth, Rödelheim 1872.) as set forth in my larger Psalmen-commentar. (Note: Vol. ii., ed. of 1860, pp. 477-511.)

The memorial word for these three books, viz., Job, Mishle (Proverbs), and Tehillim (Psalms), is 'mt, formed from the first letter of the first word of each book, or, following the Talmudic and Masoretic arrangement of the books, t'm.

Having in view the superscription sh|lomoh mish|leey , with which the book commences, the ancients regarded it as wholly the composition of Solomon. The circumstance that it contains only verses, while according to 1 Kings 5:12 (4:32) Solomon spake proverbs, R. Samuel bar-Nachmani explains by remarking that each separate verse may be divided into two or three allegories or apothegms (e.g., Prov 25:12), not to mention other more arbitrary modes of reconciling the discrepancy. (Note: Pesikta, ed. Buber (1868), 34b, 35a. Instead of 800, the Masora reckons 915 verses in the Book of Proverbs.)

The opinion also of R. Jonathan, that Solomon first composed the Canticles, then the Proverbs, and last of all Ecclesiastes, inasmuch as the first corresponds (Note: Schir-ha-Schirim Rabba, c. i.f. 4a.) with the spring-time of youth, the second with the wisdom of manhood, and the third with the disappointment of old age, is founded on the supposition of the unity of the book and of its Solomonic authorship.

At the present day also there are some, such as Stier, who regard the Book of Proverbs from first to last as the work of Solomon, just as Klauss (1832) and Randegger (1841) have ventured to affirm that all the Psalms without exception were composed by David. But since historical criticism has been applied to Biblical subjects, that blind submission to mistaken tradition appears as scarcely worthy of being mentioned. The Book of Proverbs presents itself as composed of various parts, different from each other in character and in the period to which they belong. Under the hands of the critical analysis it resolves itself into a mixed market of the most manifold intellectual productions of proverbial poetry, belonging to at least three different epochs. 1. The external plan of the Book of Proverbs, and its own testimony as to its origin.-The internal superscription of the book, which recommends it, after the manner of later Oriental books, on account of its importance and the general utility of its contents, extends from v. 1 to v. 6. Among the moderns this has been acknowledged by Löwenstein and Maurer; for v. 7, which Ewald, Bertheau, and Keil have added to it, forms a new commencement to the beginning of the book itself. The book is described as "The Proverbs of Solomon," and then there is annexed the statement of its object. That object, as summarily set forth in v. 2, is practical, and that in a twofold way: partly moral, and partly intellectual. The former is described in vv. 3-5. It present moral edification, moral sentiments for acceptance, not merely to help the unwise to attain to wisdom, but also to assist the wise.

The latter object is set forth in v. 6. It seeks by its contents to strengthen and discipline the mind to the understanding of thoughtful discourses generally. In other words, it seeks to gain the moral ends which proverbial poetry aims at, and at the same time to make familiar with it, so that the reader, in these proverbs of Solomon, or by means of them as of a key, learns to understand such like apothegms in general. Thus interpreted, the title of the book does not say that the book contains proverbs of other wise men besides those of Solomon; if it did so, it would contradict itself, It is possible that the book contains proverbs other than those of Solomon, possible that the author of the title of the book added such to it himself, but the title presents to view only the Proverbs of Solomon. If Prov 1:7 begins the book, then after reading the title we cannot think otherwise than that here begin the Solomonic proverbs.

If we read farther, the contents and the form of the discourses which follow do not contradict this opinion; for both are worthy of Solomon. So much the more astonished are we, therefore, when at Prov 10:1 we meet with a new superscription. sh|lomoh mish|leey , from which point on to 22:16 there is a long succession of proverbs of quite a different tone and form-short maxims, Mashals proper-while in the preceding section of the book we find fewer proverbs than monitory discourses.

What now must be our opinion when we look back from this second superscription to the part 1:7-9, which immediately follows the title of the book? Are 1:7-9, in the sense of the book, not the "Proverbs of Solomon"?

From the title of the book, which declares them to be so, we must judge that they are.

Or are they "Proverbs of Solomon"? In this case the new superscription (Prov 10:1), "The Proverbs of Solomon," appears altogether incomprehensible. And yet only one of these two things is possible: on the one side, therefore, there must be a false appearance of contradiction, which on a closer investigation disappears. But on which side is it? If it is supposed that the tenor of the title, 1:1-6, does not accord with that of the section 10:1-22:6, but that it accords well with that of 1:7-9 (with the breadth of expression in 1:7-9, it has also several favourite words not elsewhere occurring in the Book of Proverbs; among these, `aar|maah , subtilty, and m|zimaah , discretion, 1:4), then Ewald's view is probable, that 1-9 is an original whole written at once, and that the author had no other intention than to give it as an introduction to the larger Solomonic Book of Proverbs beginning at 10:1.

But it is also possible that the author of the title has adopted the style of the section Prov 1:7-9. Bertheau, who has propounded this view, and at the same time has rejected, in opposition to Ewald, the idea of the unity of the section, adopts this conclusion, that in 1:8-9 there lies before us a collection of the admonitions of different authors of proverbial poetry, partly original introductions to larger collections of proverbs, which the author of the title gathers together in order that he may give a comprehensive introduction to the larger collection contained in 10:1- 22:16. But such an origin of the section as Bertheau thus imagines is by no means natural; it is more probable that the author, whose object is, according to the title of the book, to give the proverbs of Solomon, introduces these by a long introduction of his own, than that, instead of beginning with Solomon's proverbs, he first presents long extracts of a different kind from collections of proverbs.

If the author, as Bertheau thinks, expresses indeed, in the words of the title, the intention of presenting, along with the "Proverbs of Solomon," also the "words of the wise," then he could not have set about his work more incorrectly and self-contradictorily than if he had begun the whole, which bears the superscription "Proverbs of Solomon" (which must be regarded as presenting the proverbs of Solomon as a key to the words of the wise generally), with the "words of the wise." But besides the opinion of Ewald, which in itself, apart from internal grounds, is more natural and probable than that of Bertheau, there is yet the possibility of another.

Keil, following H. A. Hahn, is of opinion, that in the sense of the author of the title, the section 1-9 is Solomonic as well as 10-22, but that he has repeated the superscription "Proverbs of Solomon" before the latter section, because from that point onward proverbs follow which bear in a special measure the characters of the Mashal (Hävernick's Einl. iii. 428).

The same phenomenon appears in the book of Isaiah, where, after the general title, there follows an introductory address, and then in Isa 2:1 the general title is repeated in a shorter form. That this analogy, however, is here inapplicable, the further discussion of the subject will show.

The introductory section Prov 1:7-9, and the larger section 10-22:16, which contains uniform brief Solomonic apothegms, are followed by a third section, 22:17-24:22. Hitzig, indeed, reckons 10-24:22 as the second section, but with 22:17 there commences an altogether different style, and a much freer manner in the form of the proverb; and the introduction to this new collection of proverbs, which reminds us of the general title, places it beyond a doubt that the collector does not at all intend to set forth these proverbs as Solomonic. It may indeed be possible that, as Keil (iii. 410) maintains, the collector, inasmuch as he begins with the words, "Incline thine ear and hear words of the wise," names his own proverbs generally as "words of the wise," especially since he adds, "and apply thine heart to my knowledge;" but this supposition is contradicted by the superscription of a fourth section, 24:23ff., which follows. This short section, an appendix to the third, bears the superscription, "These things also are lachakaamiym ." If Keil thinks here also to set aside the idea that the following proverbs, in the sense of this superscription, have as their authors "the wise," he does unnecessary violence to himself. The l is here that of authorship and if the following proverbs are composed by the chakaamiym , "the wise," then they are not the production of the one chaakaam , "wise man," Solomon, but they are "the words of the wise" in contradistinction to "the Proverbs of Solomon."

The Proverbs of Solomon begin again at Prov 25:1; and this second large section (corresponding to the first, 10:1-22:16) extends to 29. This fifth portion of the book has a superscription, which, like that of the preceding appendix, commences thus: "Also (gam ) these are proverbs of Solomon which the men of Hezekiah king of Judah collected." The meaning of the word he`|tiyquw is not doubtful. It signifies, like the Arameo-Arabic ncch, to remove from their place, and denote that the men of Hezekiah removed from the place where they found them the following proverbs, and placed them together in a separate collection. The words have thus been understood by the Greek translator. From the supplementary words ahi adia'kritoi (such as exclude all dia'krisis ) it is seen that the translator had a feeling of the important literary historical significance of that superscription, which reminds us of the labours of the poetical grammarians appointed by Pisitratus to edit older works, such as those of Hesiod. The Jewish interpreters, simply following the Talmud, suppose that the "also" (gam ) belongs to the whole superscription, inclusive of the relative sentence, and that it thus bears witness to the editing of the foregoing proverbs also by Hezekiah and his companions; (Note: Vid., B. Bathra, 15a. From the fact that Isaiah outlived Hezekiah it is there concluded that the Hezekiah-collegium also continued after Hezekiah's death. Cf. Fürst on the Canon of the O.T. 1868, p. 78f.) which is altogether improbable, for then, if such were the meaning of the words, "which the men of Hezekiah," etc., they ought to have stood after 1:1.

The superscription Prov 25:1 thus much rather distinguishes the following collection from that going before, as having been made under Hezekiah. As two appendices followed the "Proverbs of Solomon," 10:1-22:16, so also two appendices the Hezekiah-gleanings of Solomonic proverbs. The former two appendices, however, originate in general from the "wise," the latter more definitely name the authors: the first, 30, is by "Agur the son of Jakeh;" the second, 31:1-9, by a "King Lemuel." In so far the superscriptions are clear. The name of the authors, elsewhere unknown, point to a foreign country; and to this corresponds the peculiar complexion of these two series of proverbs. As a third appendix to the Hezekiahcollection, 31:10ff. follows, a complete alphabetical proverbial poem which describes the praiseworthy qualities of a virtuous woman.

We are thus led to the conclusion that the Book of Proverbs divides itself into the following parts:-(1) The title of the book, Prov 1:1-6, by which the question is raised, how far the book extends to which it originally belongs; (2) the hortatory discourses, 1:7-9, in which it is a question whether the Solomonic proverbs must be regarded as beginning with these, or whether they are only the introduction thereto, composed by a different author, perhaps the author of the title of the book; (3) the first great collection of Solomonic proverbs, 10-22:16; (4) the first appendix to this first collection, "The words of the wise," 22:17-24:22; (5) the second appendix, supplement of the words of some wise men, 24:23ff.; (6) the second great collection of Solomonic proverbs, which the "men of Hezekiah" collected, 25-29; (7) the first appendix to this second collection, the words of Agur the son of Makeh, 30; (8) the second appendix, the words of King Lemuel, 31:1-9; (9) third appendix, the acrostic ode, 31:10ff. These nine parts are comprehended under three groups: the introductory hortatory discourses with the general title at their head, and the two great collections of Solomonic proverbs with their two appendices. In prosecuting our further investigations, we shall consider the several parts of the book first from the point of view of the manifold forms of their proverbs, then of their style, and thirdly of their type of doctrine. From each of these three subjects of investigation we may expect elucidations regarding the origin of these proverbs and of their collections. 2. The several parts of the Book of Proverbs with respect to the manifold forms of the proverbs.-If the Book of Proverbs were a collection of popular sayings, we should find in it a multitude of proverbs of one line each, as e.g., "Wickedness proceedeth from the wicked" (1 Sam 24:13); but we seek for such in vain. At the first glance, Prov 24:23b appears to be a proverb of one line; but the line "To have respect of persons in judgment is not good," is only the introductory line of a proverb which consists of several lines, v. 24f. Ewald is right in regarding as inadmissible a comparison of the collections of Arabic proverbs by Abu-Obeida, Meidani, and others, who gathered together and expounded the current popular proverbs, with the Book of Proverbs. Ali's Hundred Proverbs are, however, more worthy of being compared with it.

Like these, Solomon's proverbs are, as a whole, the production of his own spirit, and only mediately of the popular spirit. To make the largeness of the number of these proverbs a matter of doubt were inconsiderate.

Eichhorn maintained that even a godlike genius scarcely attains to so great a number of pointed proverbs and ingenious thoughts. But if we distribute Solomon's proverbs over his forty years' reign, then we have scarcely twenty for each year; and one must agree with the conclusion, that the composition of so many proverbs even of the highest ingenuity is no impossible problem for a "godlike genius." When, accordingly, it is related that Solomon wrote 3000 proverbs, Ewald, in his History of Israel, does not find the number too great, and Bertheau does not regard it as impossible that the collection of the "Proverbs of Solomon" has the one man Solomon as their author. The number of the proverbs thus cannot determine us to regard them as having for the most part originated among the people, and the form in which they appear leads to an opposite conclusion. It is, indeed, probable that popular proverbs are partly wrought into these proverbs, (Note: Isaac Euchel (†1804), in his Commentary on the Proverbs, regards Prov 14:4a and 17:19b as such popular proverbs.) and many of their forms of expression are moulded after the popular proverbs; but as they thus lie before us, they are, as a whole, the production of the technical Mashal poetry.

The simplest form is, according to the fundamental peculiarity of the Hebrew verse, the distich. The relation of the two lines to each other is very manifold. The second line may repeat the thought of the first, only in a somewhat altered form, in order to express this thought as clearly and exhaustively as possible. We call such proverbs synonymous distichs; as e.g., Prov 11:25: A soul of blessing is made fat, And he that watereth others is himself watered.

Or the second line contains the other side of the contrast to the statement of the first; the truth spoken in the first is explained in the second by means of the presentation of its contrary. We call such proverbs antithetic distichs; as e.g., Prov 10:1: A wise son maketh his father glad, And a foolish son is his mother's grief.

Similar forms, Prov 10:16; 12:5. Elsewhere, as 18:14; 20:24, the antithesis clothes itself in the form of a question. sometimes it is two different truths that are expressed in the two lines; and the authorization of their union lies only in a certain relationship, and the ground of this union in the circumstance that two lines are the minimum of the technical proverbsynthetic distichs; e.g., 10:18: A cloak of hatred are lying lips, And he that spreadeth slander is a fool.

Not at all infrequently one line does not suffice to bring out the thought intended, the begun expression of which is only completed in the second.

These we call integral (eingedankige) distichs; as e.g., Prov 11:31 (cf. Peter 4:18): The righteous shall be recompensed on the earth- How much more the ungodly and the sinner!

To these distichs also belong all those in which the thought stated in the first receives in the second, by a sentence presenting a reason, or proof, or purpose, or consequence, a definition completing or perfecting it; e.g., Prov 13:14; 16:10; 19:20; 22:28. (Note: Such integral distichs are also 15:3; 16:7,10; 17:13,15; 18:9,13; 19:26-27; 20:7-8,10-11,20-21; 21:4,13,16,21,23-2430; 22:4,11; 24:8,26; 26:16; 27:14; 28:8-9,17,24; 29:1,5,12,14. In 14:27; 15:24; 17:23; 19:27, the second line consists of one sentence with l and the infin.; in 16:12,26; 21:25; 22:9; 27:1; 29:19, of one sentence with kiy ; with 'im kiy , 18:2; 23:17. The two lines, as 11:31; 15:11; 17:7; 19:7ab, 10, 20:27, form a conclusion a minori ad majus, or the reverse. The former or the latter clauses stand in grammatical relation in 23:1-2,15f., 27:22; 29:21 (cf. 22:29; 24:10; 26:12; 29:20, with hypoth. perf., and 26:26 with hypoth. fut.); in the logical relation of reason and consequence, 17:14; 20:2,4; in comparative relation, 12:9, etc. These examples show that the two lines, not merely in the more recent, but also in the old Solomonic Mashal, do not always consist of two parallel members.)

But there is also a fifth form, which corresponds most to the original character of the Mashal: the proverb explaining its ethical object by a resemblance from the region of the natural and every-day life, the parabolee' proper. The form of this parabolic proverb is very manifold, according as the poet himself expressly compares the two subjects, or only places them near each other in order that the hearer or reader may complete the comparison. The proverb is least poetic when the likeness between the two subjects is expressed by a verb; as Prov 27:15 (to which, however, v. 16 belongs): A continual dropping in a rainy day And a contentious woman are alike.

The usual form of expression, neither unpoetic nor properly poetic, is the introduction of the comparison by k| as, and of the similitude in the second clause by keen so; as Prov 10:26: As vinegar to the teeth, and as smoke to the eyes, So is the sluggard to them who give him a commission.

This complete verbal statement of the relation of likeness may also be abbreviated by the omission of the keen ; as Prov 25:13; 26:11: As a dog returning to his vomit- A fool returning to his folly.

We call the parabolic proverbs of these three forms comparisons. The last, the abbreviated form of the comparative proverb, which we will call, in contradistinction to the comparative, the emblematic, in which the contrast and its emblem are loosely placed together without any nearer expression of the similitude; as e.g., Prov 26:20; 27:17-18,20. This takes place either by means of the couplative Vav, w|, as 25:25- Cold water to a thirsty soul, And good news from a far country. (Note: This so-called Vav adaequationis, which appears here for the first time in the Proverbs as the connection between the figure and the thing itself without a verbal predicate (cf. on the other hand, Job 5:7; 12:11; 14:11f.), is, like the Vav, w|, of comparison, only a species of that Vav of association which is called in Arab. Waw alajam'a, or Waw alam'ayat, or Waw al'asatsahab (vid., at Isa 42:5); and since usage attributes to it the verbal power of secum habere, it is construed with the accus. Vid., examples in Freytag's Arabum Proverbia, among the recent proverbs beginning with the Arabic letter k.)

Or without the Vav; in which case the second line is as the subscription under the figure or double figure painted in the first; e.g., Prov 25:11f., 11:22: A gold ring in a swine's snout- A fair woman without understanding.

These ground-forms of two lines, can, however, expand into forms of several lines. Since the distich is the peculiar and most appropriate form of the technical proverb, so, when two lines are not sufficient for expressing the thought intended, the multiplication to four, six, or eight lines is most natural. In the tetrastich the relation of the last two to the first two is as manifold as is the relation of the second line to the first in the distich.

There is, however, no suitable example of four-lined stanzas in antithetic relation. But we meet with synonymous tetrastichs, e.g., Prov 23:15f., 24:3f., 28f.; synthetic, 30:5f.; integral, 30:17f., especially of the form in which the last two lines constitute a proof passage beginning with kiy , 22:22f., or peen , 22:24f., or without exponents, 22:26f.; comparative without expressing the comparison, 25:16f. (cf. on the other hand, 26:18f., where the number of lines is questionable), and also the emblematical, 25:4f.: Take away the dross from the silver, And there shall come forth a vessel for the goldsmith; Take away the wicked from before the king, And this throne shall be established in righteousness.

Proportionally the most frequently occurring are tetrastichs, the second half of which forms a proof clause commencing with kiy or peen . Among the less frequent are the six-lined, presenting (Prov 23:1-3; 24:11f.) one and the same thought in manifold aspects, with proofs interspersed. Among all the rest which are found in the collection, 23:12- 14,19-21,26-28; 30:15f., 30:29-31, the first two lines form a prologue introductory to the substance of the proverb; as e.g., 23:12-14: O let instruction enter into thine heart, And apply thine ears to the words of knowledge.

Withhold not correction from the child; For if thou beatest him with the rod-he dies not.

Thou shalt beat him with the rod, And deliver his soul from hell.

Similarly formed, yet more expanded, is the eight-lined stanza, 23:22-28: Hearken unto thy father that begat thee, And despise not thy mother when she is old.

Buy the truth and sell it not:

Wisdom, and virtue, and understanding.

The father of a righteous man greatly rejoices, And he that begetteth a wise child hath joy of him.

Thy father and thy mother shall be glad, And she that bare thee shall rejoice.

The Mashal proverb here inclines to the Mashal ode; for this octastich may be regarded as a short Mashal song-like the alphabetical Mashal psalm 37, which consists of almost pure tetrastichs.

We have now seen how the distich form multiplies itself into forms consisting of four, six, and eight lines; but it also unfolds itself, as if in onesided multiplication, into forms of three, five, and seven lines. Tristichs arise when the thought of the first line is repeated (Prov 27:22) in the second according to the synonymous scheme, or when the thought of the second line is expressed by contrast in the third (22:29; 28:10) according to the antithetic scheme, or when to the thought expressed in one or two lines (25:8; 27:10) there is added its proof. The parabolic scheme is here represented when the object described is unfolded in two lines, as in the comparison 25:13, or when its nature is portrayed by two figures in two lines, as in the emblematic proverb 25:20: To take off clothing in cold weather, Vinegar upon nitre, And he that singeth songs to a heavy heart.

In the few instances of pentastichs which are found, the last three lines usually unfold the reason of the thought of the first two: Prov 23:4f., 25:6f., 30:32f.; to this 24:13 forms an exception, where the keen before the last three lines introduces the expansion of the figure in the first two. As an instance we quote 25:6f.: Seek not to display thyself in the presence of the king, And stand not in the place of the great.

For better that it be said unto thee, "Come up hither," Than that they humble thee in the presence of the prince, While thine eyes have raised themselves.

Of heptastichs I know of only one example in the collection, viz., Prov 23:6-8: Eat not the bread of the jealous, And lust not after his dainties; For he is like one who calculates with himself:- "Eat and drink," saith he to thee, And his heart is not with thee.

Thy morsel which thou hast eaten must thou vomit up, And thou hast wasted thy pleasant words.

From this heptastich, which one will scarcely take for a brief Mashal ode according to the compound strophe-scheme, we see that the proverb of two lines can expand itself to the dimensions of seven and eight lines.

Beyond these limits the whole proverb ceases to be maashaal in the proper sense; and after the manner of Ps 25; 34, and especially 37, it becomes a Mashal ode. Of this class of Mashal odes are, besides the prologue, Prov 22:17-21, that of the drunkard, 23:29-35; that of the slothful man, 24:30-34; the exhortation to industry, 27:23-27; the prayer for a moderate portion between poverty and riches, 30:7-9; the mirror for princes, 31:2-9;' and the praise of the excellent wife, 31:10ff. It is singular that this ode furnishes the only example of the alphabetical acrostic in the whole collection. Even a single trace of original alphabetical sequence afterwards broken up cannot be found. There cannot also be discovered, in the Mashal songs referred to, anything like a completed strophe-scheme; even in 31:10ff. the distichs are broken by tristichs intermingled with them.

In the whole of the first part, Prov 1:7-9, the prevailing form is that of the extended flow of the Mashal song; but one in vain seeks for strophes.

There is not here so firm a grouping of the lines; on the supposition of its belonging to the Solomonic era, this is indeed to be expected. The rhetorical form here outweighs the purely poetical. This first part of the Proverbs consists of the following fifteen Mashal strains: (1) 1:7-19, (2) 20ff., (3) 2, (4) 3:1-18, (5) 19-26, (6) 27ff., (7) 4:1-5:6, (8) 7ff., (9) 6:1-5, (10) 6-11, (11) 12-19, (12) 20ff., (13) 7, (14) 8, (15) 9. In 3 and 9 there are found a few Mashal odes of two lines and of four lines which may be regarded as independent Mashals, and may adapt themselves to the schemes employed; other brief complete parts are only waves in the flow of the larger discourses, or are altogether formless, or more than octastichs. The octastich 6:16-19 makes the proportionally greatest impression of an independent inwoven Mashal. It is the only proverb in which symbolical numbers are used which occurs in the collection from 1 to 29: There are six things which Jahve hateth, And seven are an abhorrence to His soul:

Haughty eyes, a lying tongue, And hands that shed innocent blood; An heart that deviseth the thoughts of evil, Feet that hastily run to wickedness, One that uttereth lies as a false witness, And he who soweth strife between brethren.

Such numerical proverbs to which the name midaah has been given by later Jewish writers (see my Gesch. der Jüd. Poesie, pp. 199, 202) are found in 30. With the exception of Prov 30:7-9,24-28 (cf. Sir. 25:1, 2), the numerical proverb has this peculiarity, found also in most of the numerical proverbs of Sirach (Sir. 23:16; 25:7; 26:5, 28), that the number named in the first parallel line is in the second (cf. Job 5:9) increased by one. On the other hand, the form of the Priamel (Note: From praeambulum, designating a peculiar kind of epigram found in the German poetry of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.) is used neither in the Book of Proverbs nor in that of Sirach. Proverbs such as Prov 20:10 ("Diverse weights, diverse measures-an abomination to Jahve are they both") and 20:12 ("The hearing ear, the seeing eye-Jahve hath created them both"), to be distinguished from 17:3; 27:21, and the like, where the necessary unity, and from 27:3, where the necessary resemblance, of the predicate is wanting, are only a weak approach to the Priamel-a stronger, 25:3, where the three subjects form the preamble ("The heaven for height, and the earth for depth, and the heart of kings-are unsearchable").

Perhaps Prov 30:11-14 is a greater mutilated Priamel. Here four subjects form the preamble, but there is wanting the conclusion containing the common predicate. This, we believe, exhausts the forms of the Mashal in the collection. It now only remains to make mention of the Mashal chain, i.e., the ranging together in a series of proverbs of a similar character, such as the chain of proverbs regarding the fool, 26:1-12, the sluggard, 26:13-16, the tale-bearer, 26:20-22, the malicious, 26:23-28-but this form belongs more to the technics of the Mashal collection than to that of the Mashal poetry.

We now turn to the separate parts of the book, to examine more closely the forms of their proverbs, and gather materials for a critical judgment regarding the origin of the proverbs which they contain. Not to anticipate, we take up in order the separate parts of the arrangement of the collection.

Since, then, it cannot be denied that in the introductory paedagogic part, Prov 1:7-9, notwithstanding its rich and deep contents, there is exceedingly little of the technical form of the Mashal, as well as generally of technical form at all. This part, as already shown, consist not of proper Mashals, but of fifteen Mashal odes, or rather, perhaps, Mashal discourses, didactic poems of the Mashal kind. In the flow of these discourses separate Mashals intermingle, which may either be regarded as independent, or, as 1:32; 4:18f., can easily be so understood. In the Mashal chains of ch. 4 and 9 we meet with proverbs that are synonymous (9:7,10), antithetic (3:35; 9:8), integral, or of one thought (3:29-30), and synthetic (1:7; 3:5,7), of two lines and of four lines variously disposed (3:9f., 11f., 31f., 33f.); but the parabolic scheme is not at all met with, separate proverbs such as 3:27f. are altogether without form, and keeping out of view the octastich numerical proverb, 6:16-19, the thoughts which form the unity of separate groups are so widely expanded that the measure of the Mashal proper is far exceeded. The character of this whole part is not concentrating, but unfolding. Even the intermingling proverbs of two lines possess the same character. They are for the most part more like dissolved drops than gold coins with sharp outline and firm impress; as e.g., 9:7: He that correcteth the mocker getteth to himself shame; And he that rebuketh the sinner his dishonour.

The few that consist of four lines are closer, more compact, more finished, because they allow greater space for the expression; e.g., Prov 3:9f.: Honour Jahve with thy wealth, And with the first-fruits of all thine income:

And thy barns shall be filled with plenty, And thy vats shall overflow with must.

But beyond the four lines the author knows no limits of artistic harmony; the discourse flows on till it has wholly or provisionally exhausted the subject; it pauses not till it reaches the end of its course, and then, taking breath, it starts anew. We cannot, moreover, deny that there is beauty in this new springing forth of the stream of the discourse with its fresh transparent waves; but it is a peculiar beauty of the rhetorically decomposed, dissolved Mashal, going forth, as it were, from its confinement, and breathing its fragrance far and wide.

The fifteen discourses, in which the Teacher appears twelve times and Wisdom three times, are neither of a symmetrically chiselled form nor of internally fashioned coherence, but yet are a garland of songs having internal unity, with a well-arranged manifoldness of contents. It is true that Bertheau recognises here neither unity of the contents nor unity of the formal character; but there is no Old Testament portion of like extent, and at the same time of more systematic internal unity, and which bears throughout a like formal impress, than this. Bertheau thinks that he has discovered in certain passages a greater art in the form; and certainly there are several sections which consist of just ten verses. But this is a mere accident; for the first Mashal ode consists of groups of 1, 2, and 10 verses, the second of 8 and 6 verses, the third of 10 and 12, the fourth of 10 and 8, the fifth of 2 and 6, etc.-each group forming a complete sense. The verses are met with six times, and if Prov 4:1-9 from the Peshito, and 4:20- 27 from the LXX, are included, eight times, without our regarding these decades as strophes, and without our being able to draw any conclusion regarding a particular author of these decade portions. In 1:20-33, Bertheau finds indeed, along with the regular structure of verses, an exact artistic formation of strophes (3 times 4 verses with an echo of 2). But he counts instead of the stichs the Masoretic verses, and these are not the true formal parts of the strophe.

We now come to the second part of the collection, whose superscription sh|lomoh mish|leey can in no respect be strange to us, since the collection of proverbs here commencing, compared with Prov 1:7-9, may with special right bear the name Mishle. The 375 proverbs which are classed together in this part, 10-22:16, without any comprehensive plan, but only according to their more or fewer conspicuous common characteristics (Bertheau, p. xii), consist all and every one of distichs; for each Masoretic verse falls naturally into two stichs, and nowhere (not even 19:19) does such a distich proverb stand in necessary connection with one that precedes or that follows; each is in itself a small perfected and finished whole. The tristich 19:7 is only an apparent exception. In reality it is a distich with the disfigured remains of a distich that has been lost. The LXX has here two distichs which are wanting in our text. The second is that which is found in our text, but only in a mutilated form: ho polla' kako poioo'n telesiourgei' kaki'an, He that does much harm perfects mischief, ho's de' erethi'zei lo'gous ou soothee'setai.

And he that uses provoking words shall not escape.

Perhaps the false rendering of mr` rbym yshlm-r` mrdp 'mrym l' ymlT The friend of every one is rewarded with evil, He who pursues after rumours does not escape.

But not only are all these proverbs distichs, they have also, not indeed without exception, but in by far the greatest number, a common character in that they are antithetic. Distichs of predominating antithetic character stand here together. Along with these all other schemes are, it is true, represented: the synonymous, Prov 11:7,25,30; 12:14,28; 14:19, etc.; the integral, or of one thought, 14:7; 15:3, etc., particularly in proverbs with the comparative min , 12:9; 15:16-17; 16:8,19; 17:10; 21:19; 22:1, and with the ascending kiy- 'ap much more, 11:31; 15:11; 17:7; 19:7,10; 21:27; the synthetic, 10:18; 11:29; 14:17; 19:13; the parabolic, the most feebly represented, for the only specimens of it are 10:26; 11:22; besides which I know not what other Bertheau could quote.

We shall further see that in another portion of the book the parabolic proverbs are just as closely placed together as are the antithetic. Here almost universally the two members of the proverbs stand together in technical parallelism as thesis and antithesis; also in the synonymous proverbs the two members are the parallel rays of one thought; in the synthetic two monostichs occur in loose external connection to suffice for the parallelism as a fundamental law of the technical proverb. But also in these proverbs in which a proper parallelism is not found, both members being needed to form a complete sentence, verse and members are so built up, according to Bertheau's self-confirmatory opinion, that in regard to extent and the number of words they are like verses with parallel members.

To this long course of distichs which profess to be the Mishle of Solomon, there follows a course, Prov 22:17-24:22, of "words of the wise," prefaced by the introduction 22:17-21, which undeniably is of the same nature as the greater introduction, 1:7-9, and of which we are reminded by the form of address preserved throughout in these "words of the wise." These "words of the wise" comprehend all the forms of the Mashal, from those of two lines in 22:28; 23:9; 24:7-10, to the Mashal song 23:29-35.

Between these limits are the tetrastichs, which are the most popular form, 22:22f., 24f., 26f., 23:10f., 15f., 17f., 24:1f., 3f., 5f., 15,f., 17f., 19f., 21f.- pentastichs, 23:4f., 24:13f., and hexastichs, 23:1-3,12-14,19-21,26-28; 24:11f.;-of tristichs, heptastichs, and octastichs are at least found one specimen of each, 22:29; 23:6-8,22-25.

Bertheau maintains that there is a difference between the structure of these proverbs and that of the preceding, for he counts the number of the words which constitute a verse in the case of the latter and of the former; but such a proceeding is unwarrantable, for the remarkably long Masoretic verse Prov 24:12 contains eighteen words; and the poet is not to be made accountable for such an arrangement, for in his mind 24:11f. forms a hexastich, and indeed a very elegant one. Not the words of the Masoretic verse, but the stichs are to be counted. Reckoning according to the stichs, I can discover no difference between these proverbs and the preceding. In the preceding ones also the number of the words in the stichs extends from two to five, the number two being here, however, proportionally more frequently found (e.g., 24:4b, 24:8a, 10b); a circumstance which has its reason in this, that the symmetry of the members is often very much disturbed, there being frequently no trace whatever of parallelism.

To the first appendix to the "Proverbs of Solomon" there follows a second, Prov 24:23ff., with the superscription, "These things also to the wise," which contains a hexastich, 24:23b-25, a distich, v. 26, a tristich, v. 27, a tetrastich, v. 28f., and a Mashal ode, v. 30ff., on the sluggard-the last in the form of an experience, of the poet like Ps 37:35f. The moral which he has drawn from this recorded observation is expressed in two verses such as we have already found at Prov 6:10f. These two appendices are, as is evident from their commencement as well as from their conclusion, in closest relation to the introduction, 1:7-9.

There now follows in 25-29 the second great collection of "Proverbs of Solomon," "copied out," as the superscription mentions, by the direction of King Hezekiah. It falls, apparently, into two parts; for as Prov 24:30ff., a Mashal hymn stands at the end of the two appendices, so that the Mashal hymn 27:23ff. must be regarded as forming the division between the two halves of this collection. It is very sharply distinguished from the collection beginning with ch. 10. The extent of the stichs and the greater or less observance of the parallelism furnish no distinguishing mark, but there are others worthy of notice. In the first collection the proverbs are exclusively in the form of distichs; here we have also some tristichs, 25:8,13,20; 27:10,22; 28:10, tetrastichs, 25:4f., 9f., 21f., 26:18f., 24f., 27:15f., and pentastichs, 25:6f., besides the Mashal hymn already referred to.

The kind of arrangement is not essentially different from that in the first collection; it is equally devoid of plan, yet there are here some chains or strings of related proverbs, Prov 26:1-13-16,20-22. A second essential distinction between the two collections is this, that while in the first the antithetic proverb forms the prevailing element, here is it the parabolic, and especially the emblematic; in 25-27 are sentences almost wholly of this character. We say almost, for to place together proverbs of this kind exclusively is not the plan of the collector. There are also proverbs of the other schemes, fewer synonymous, etc., than antithetic, and the collection begins in very varied quodlibet: 25:2, an antithetic proverb; 25:3, a priamel with three subjects; 25:4f., an emblematic tetrastich; 25:6f., a pentastich; 25:8, a tristich; 25:9f., a tetrastich, with the negative pn ; 25:11, an emblematic distich ("Golden apples in silver caskets-a word spoken in a fitting way"). The antithetic proverbs are found especially in 28 and 29: the first and the last proverb of the whole collection, 25:2; 29:27, are antithetic; but between these two the comparative and the figurative proverbs are so prevalent, that this collection appears like a variegated picture-book with explanatory notes written underneath. In extent it is much smaller than the foregoing. I reckon 126 proverbs in 137 Masoretic verses.

The second collection of Solomon's proverbs has also several appendices, the first of which, 30, according to the inscription, is by an otherwise unknown author, Agur the son of Jakeh. The first poem of this appendix present in a thoughtful way the unsearchableness of God. This is followed by certain peculiar pieces, such as a tetrastich regarding the purity of God's word, Prov 30:5f.; a prayer for a moderate position between riches and poverty, vv. 7-9; a distich against slander, v. 10; a priamel without the conclusion, vv. 11-14; the insatiable four (a Midda), v. 15f.; a tetrastich regarding the disobedient son, v. 17, the incomprehensible four, vv. 18-20; the intolerable four, vv. 21-23; the diminutive but prudent four, vv. 24-28; the excellent four, vv. 29-31; a pentastich recommending prudent silence, v. 32f. Two other supplements form the conclusion of the whole book: the counsel of Lemuel's mother to her royal son, 31:2-9, and the praise of the virtuous woman in the form of an alphabetical acrostic, 31:10ff.

After we have acquainted ourselves with the manifold forms of the technical proverbs and their distribution in the several parts of the collection, the question arises, What conclusions regarding the origin of these several parts may be drawn from these forms found in them? We connect with this the conception of Ewald, who sees represented in the several parts of the collection the chief points of the history of proverbial poetry. The "Proverbs of Solomon," Prov 10:1-22:16, appear to him to be the oldest collection, which represents the simplest and the most ancient kind of proverbial poetry. Their distinguishing characteristics are the symmetrical two-membered verse, complete in itself, containing in itself a fully intelligible meaning, and the quick contrast of thesis and antithesis.

The oldest form of the technical proverb, according to Ewald, is, according to our terminology, the antithetic distich, such as predominates in 10:1- 22:16.

Along with these antithetic distichs we find here also others of a different kind. Ewald so considers the contrast of the two members to be the original fundamental law of the technical proverb, that to him these other kinds of distichs represent the diminution of the inner force of the twomembered verse, the already begun decay of the art in its oldest limits and laws, and the transition to a new method. In the "Proverbs of Solomon," 25-29, of the later collection, that rigorous formation of the verse appears already in full relaxation and dissolution: the contrast of the sense of the members appears here only exceptionally; the art turns from the crowded fulness and strength of the representation more to the adorning of the thought by means of strong and striking figures and forms of expression, to elegant painting of certain moral conditions and forms of life; and the more the technical proverb is deprived of the breath of a vigorous poetic spirit, so much the nearer does it approach to the vulgar proverb; the full and complete symmetry of the two members disappears, less by the abridgment of one of them, than by the too great extension and amplification of the two-membered proverb into longer admonitions to a moral life, and descriptions relating thereto.

So the proverbial poetry passes essentially into a different form and manner. "While it loses in regard to internal vigorous brevity and strength, it seeks to gain again by means of connected instructive exposition, by copious description and detailed representation; breaking up its boldly delineated, strong, and yet simply beautiful form, it rises to oratorical display, to attractive eloquence, in which, indeed, though the properly poetical and the artistic gradually disappears, yet the warmth and easy comprehension are increased." In ch. 1-9, the introduction of the older collection, and Prov 22:17-24, of the first half of the supplement to the older collection (25-29 is the second half), supplied by a later writer, the great change is completed, the growth of which the later collection of the "Proverbs of Solomon," particularly in 25-29, reveals.

The symmetry of the two members of the verse is here completely destroyed; the separate proverb appears almost only as an exception; the proverbial poetry has passed into admonition and discourse, and has become in many respects lighter, and more flexible, and flowing, and comprehensible. "It is true that on the side of this later form of proverbial poetry there is not mere loss. While it always loses the excellent pointed brevity, the inner fulness and strength of the old proverbs, it gains in warmth, impressiveness, intelligibility; the wisdom which at first strives only to make its existence and its contents in endless manifoldness known, reaches this point at last, that having become clear and certain, it now also turns itself earnestly and urgently to men." In the later additions, ch. 30- 31, appended altogether externally, the proverbial poetry has already disappeared, and given place to elegant descriptions of separate moral truths. While the creative passes into the background, the whole aim is now toward surprising expansion and new artistic representation.

This view of the progressive development of the course of proverbial poetry is one of the chief grounds for the determination of Ewald's judgment regarding the parts that are Solomonic and those that are not Solomonic in the collection. In Prov 10:1-22:16 he does not regard the whole as Solomon's, as immediately and in their present form composed by Solomon; but the breath of the Solomonic spirit enlivens and pervades all that has been added by other and later poets. But most of the proverbs of the later collection (25-29) are not much older than the time of Hezekiah; yet there are in it some that are Solomonic, and of the period next to Solomon. The collection stretches backward with its arms, in part indeed, as the superscription, the "Proverbs of Solomon," shows, to the time of Solomon. On the other hand, in the introduction, 1-9, and in the first half of the appendix (22:17-24), there is not found a single proverb of the time of Solomon; both portions belong to two poets of the seventh century B.C., a new era, in which the didactic poets added to the older Solomonic collection longer pieces of their own composition. The four small pieces, 30:1-14,15-33; 31:1-10ff., are of a still later date; they cannot belong to an earlier period than the end of the seventh or the beginning of the sixth century B.C.

We recognise the penetration, the sensibility, the depth of thought indicate by this opinion of Ewald's regarding the origin of the book; yet for the most part it is not supported by satisfactory proof. If we grant that he has on the whole rightly construed the history of proverbial poetry, nevertheless the conclusion that proverbs which bear in themselves the marks of the oldest proverbial poetry belong to the Solomonic era, and that the others belong to a period more nearly or more remotely subsequent to it, is very fallacious. In this case much that is found in Sirach's Book of Proverbs must be Solomonic; and the 'cp mshly of Isaac Satanow, (Note: Isaac Ha-Levi was born at Satanow (whence his name), in Russian Poland, 1732, died at Berlin 1802. Besides other works, he was the author of several collections of gnomes and apothegms in imitation of the Proverbs. Vid., Delitzsch Zur Gesch. der Jüd. Poesie, p. 115.]) the contemporary of Moses Mendelssohn, as well as many other proverbs in the collection drbnn mlyn, and in the poetical works of other Jewish poets belonging to the middle ages or to later times, might be dated back perhaps a thousand years.

Along with the general course of development the individuality of the poet is also to be taken into account; an ancient poet can, along with the formally completed, produce the imperfect, which appears to belong to a period of art that has degenerated, and a modern poet can emulate antiquity with the greatest accuracy. but Ewald's construction of the progress of the development of proverbial poetry is also in part arbitrary.

That the two-membered verse is the oldest form of the technical proverb we shall not dispute, but that it is the two-membered antithetic verse is a supposition that cannot be proved; and that Solomon wrote only antithetic distichs is an absurd assertion, to which Keil justly replies, that the adhering to only one form and structure is a sign of poverty, of mental narrowness and one-sidedness.

There are also other kinds of parallelism, which are not less beautiful and vigorous than the antithetic, and also other forms of proverbs besides the distich in which the thought, which can in no way be restrained within two lines, must necessarily divide itself into the branches of a greater number of lines. Thus I must agree with Keil in the opinion, that Ewald's assertion that in the Hezekiah-collection the strong form of the technical proverb is in full dissolution, contains an exaggeration. If the first collection. Prov 10:1-22:16, contains only two (10:26; 11:22) figurative proverbs, while it would be altogether foolish to deny that these tow, because they were figurative proverbs, were Solomonic, or to affirm that he was the author of only these two, so it is self-evident that the Hezekiah-collection, which is principally a collection of figurative proverbs, must contain many proverbs in which a different kind of parallelism prevails, which has the appearance of a looser connection. Is it not probable that Solomon, who had an open penetrating eye for the greatest and the smallest objects of nature, composed many such proverbs? And is e.g., the proverb 26:23, Dross of silver spread over a potsherd- Burning lips and a wicked heart, less beautiful, and vigorous, and worthy of Solomon than any antithetic distich? If Ewald imagines that the 3000 proverbs which Solomon wrote were all constructed according to this one model, we are much rather convinced that Solomon's proverbial poetry, which found the distich and the tetrastich as forms of proverbs already in use, would not only unfold within the limits of the distich the most varied manifoldness of thought and form, but would also within the limits of the Mashal generally, run through the whole scale from the distich up to octastichs and more extensive forms. But while we cannot accept Ewald's criteria which he applies to the two collections, Prov 10:1-22:16 and 25-29, yet his delineation of the form and kind of proverbial poetry occurring in 1-9, 22:17ff., is excellent, as is also his conclusion, that these portions belong to a new and more recent period of proverbial poetry. Since in 22:17-21 manifestly a new course of "Words of the Wise" by a poet later than Solomon is introduced, it is possible, yea, not improbable, that he, or, as Ewald thinks, another somewhat older poet, introduces in 1:7-9 the "Proverbs of Solomon" following from 10:1 onward.

But if Solomon composed not only distichs, but also tristichs, etc., it is strange that in the first collection, 10-22:16, there are exclusively distichs; and if he constructed not only contrasted proverbs, but equally figurative proverbs, it is as strange that in the first collection the figurative proverbs are almost entirely wanting, while in the second collection, 25-29, on the contrary, they prevail. This remarkable phenomenon may be partly explained if we could suppose that not merely the second collection but both of them, were arranged by the "men of Hezekiah," and that the whole collection of the Solomonic proverbs was divided by them into two collections according to their form. But leaving out of view other objections, one would in that case have expected in the first collection the proportionally great number of the antithetic distichs which stand in the second.

If we regard both collections as originally one whole, then there can be no rational ground for its being divided in this particular way either by the original collector or by a later enlarger of the collection. We have therefore to regard the two portions as the work of two different authors. The second is by the "men of Hezekiah;" the first cannot be by Solomon himself, since the number of proverbs composed, and probably also written out by Solomon, amounted to 3000; besides, if Solomon was the author of the collection, there would be visible on it the stamp of his wisdom in its plan and order: it is thus the work of another author, who is certainly different from the author of the introductory Mashal poems, Prov 1:7-9. For if the author of the title of the book were not at the same time the author of the introduction, he must have taken it from some other place; thus it is inconceivable how he could give the title "Proverbs of Solomon," etc., 1:1-6, to poems which were not composed by Solomon. If 1:7-9 is not by Solomon, then these Mashal poems are explicable only as the work of the author of the title of the book, and as an introduction to the "Proverbs of Solomon," beginning 10:1. It must be one and the same author who edited the "Proverbs of Solomon" 10:1-22:16, prefixed 1:7-9 as an introduction to them, and appended to them the "Words of the Wise," 22:17-24:22; the second collector then appended to this book a supplement of the "Words of the Wise," 24:23ff., and then the Hezekiahcollection of Solomonic proverbs, 25-29; perhaps also, in order that the book might be brought to a close in the same form in which it was commenced, he added (Note: Zöckler takes Prov 24:23ff. as a second appendix to the first principal collection. This is justifiable, but the second superscription rather suggests two collectors.) the non-Solomonic proverbial poem 30:f. We do not, however, maintain that the book has this origin, but only this, that on the supposition of the non-Solomonic origin of 1:7-9 it cannot well have any other origin. But the question arises again, and more emphatically, How was it possible that the first collector left as gleanings to the second so great a number of distichs, almost all parabolical, and besides, all more than two-lined proverbs of Solomon? One can scarcely find the reason of this singular phenomenon in anything else than in the judgment of the author of the first collection as the determining motive of his selection. For when we think also on the sources and origin of the two collections, the second always presupposes the first, and that which is singular in the author's thus restricting himself can only have its ground in the freedom which he allowed to his subjectivity.

Before we more closely examine the style and the teaching of the book, and the conclusions thence arising, another phenomenon claims our attention, which perhaps throws light on the way in which the several collections originated; but, at all events, it may not now any longer remain out of view, when we are in the act of forming a judgment on this point. 3. The repetitions in the Book of Proverbs.-We find not only in the different parts of the collection, but also within the limits of one and the same part, proverbs which wholly or in part are repeated in the same or in similar words. Before we can come to a judgment, we must take cognizance as closely as possible of this fact. We begin with "The Proverbs of Solomon," 10-22:16; for this collection is in relation to 25-29 certainly the earlier, and it is especially with respect to the Solomonic proverbs that this fact demands an explanation. In this earlier collection we find, (1) whole proverbs repeated in exactly the same words: Prov 14:12= 16:25;--(2) proverbs slightly changed in their form of expression: 10:1 = 15:20; 14:20 = 19:4; 16:2 = 21:2; 19:5 = 19:9; 20:10 = 20:23; 21:9 = 21:19--(3) proverbs almost identical in form, but somewhat different in sense: 10:2 = 11:4; 13:14 = 14:27--(4) proverbs the first lines of which are the same: 10:15 = 18:11--(5) proverbs with their second lines the same: 10:6 = 10:11; 10:8 = 10:10; 15:33 = 18:12--(6) proverbs with one line almost the same: 11:13 = 20:19; 11:21 = 16:5; 12:14 - 13:2; 14:31 = 17:5; 16:18 = 18:12; 19:12 = 20:2; comp. also 16:28 with 17:9; 19:25 with 21:11.

In comparing these proverbs, one will perceive that for the most part the external or internal resemblance of the surrounding has prompted the collector of place the one proverb in this place and the other in that place (not always indeed; for what reason e.g., could determine the position of Prov 16:25 and 19:5,9, I cannot say); then that the proverb standing earlier is generally, to all appearance, also the earlier formed, for the second of the pair is mostly a synonymous distich, which generally further extends antithetically one line of the first: cf. 18:11 with 10:15; 20:10,23 with 11:1; 20:19 with 11:13; 16:5 with 11:21; 20:2 with 19:12, also 17:5 with 14:31, where from an antithetic proverb a synthetic one is formed; but here also there are exceptions, as 13:2 compared with 12:14, and 15:33 with 18:12, where the same line is in the first case connected with a synonymous, and in the second with an antithetic proverb; but here also the contrast is so loose, that the earlier-occurring proverb has the appearance of priority.

We now direct our attention to the second collection, 25-29. When we compare the proverbs found here with one another, we see among them a disproportionately smaller number of repetitions than in the other collection; only a single entire proverb is repeated in almost similar terms, but in an altered sense, Prov 29:20 = 26:12; but proverbs such as 28:12,28; 29:2, notwithstanding the partial resemblance, are equally original. On the other hand, in this second collection we find numerous repetitions of proverbs and portions of proverbs from the first:-(1) Whole proverbs perfectly identical (leaving out of view insignificant variations): 25:24 = 21:9; 26:22 = 18:8; 27:12 = 22:3; 27:13 = 20:16--(2) proverbs identical in meaning with somewhat changed expression: 26:13 = 22:13; 26:15 = 19:24; 28:6 = 19:1; 28:19 = 12:11; 29:13 = 22:2--(3) proverbs with one line the same and one line different: 27:21 = 17:3; 29:22 = 15:18; cf. also 27:15 with 19:13. when we compare these proverbs with one another, we are uncertain as to many of them which has the priority, as e.g., 27:21 = 17:3; 29:22 = 15:18; but in the case of others there is no doubt that the Hezekiah-collection contains the original form of the proverb which is found in the other collection, as 26:13; 28:6,19; 29:13; 27:15, in relation to their parallels.

In the other portions of this book also we find such repetitions as are met with in these two collections of Solomonic proverbs. In Prov 1:7-9:18 we have 2:16, a little changed, repeated in 7:5, and 3:15 in 8:11; 9:10a = 1:7a is a case not worthy of being mentioned, and it were inappropriate here to refer to 9:4,16. In the first appendix of "the Words of the Wise," 22:17- 24:22, single lines often repeat themselves in another connection; cf. 23:3 and 6, 23:10 and 22:28; 23:17f. and 24:13f., 22:23 and 23:11,17 and 24:1.

That in such cases the one proverb is often the pattern of the other, is placed beyond a doubt by the relation of 24:19 to Ps 37:1; cf. also Prov 24:20 with Ps 37:38. If here there are proverbs like those of Solomon in their expression, the presumption is that the priority belongs to the latter, as Prov 23:27 cf. 22:14; 24:5f. cf. 11:14; 24:19f. cf. 13:9, in which latter case the justice of the presumption is palpable. Within the second appendix of "the Words of the Wise," 24:23ff., no repetitions are to be expected on account of its shortness; yet is 24:23 repeated from the Solomonic Mashal 28:21, and as 24:33f. are literally the same as 6:10f., the priority is presumably on the side of the author of 1:7-9:18, at least of the Mashal in the form in which he communicates it. The supplements 30 and 31 afford nothing that is worth mention as bearing on our present inquiry, (Note: Quite the same phenomenon, Fleischer remarks, presents itself in the different collections of proverbs ascribed to the Caliph Ali, where frequently one and the same thought in one collection is repeated in manifold forms in a second, here in a shorter, there in a longer form. As a general principle this is to be borne in mind, that the East transmits unchanged, with scrupulous exactness, only religious writings regarded as holy and divine, and therefore these Proverbs have been transmitted unchanged only since they became a distinct part of the canon; before that time it happened to them, as to all in the East that is exposed to the arbitrariness of the changing spirit and the intercourse of life, that one and the same original text has been modified by one speaker and writer after another. Thus of the famous poetical works of the East, such e.g., as Firdusi's Schah- Nahem (Book of the Kings) and Sadi's Garden of Roses, not one MS copy agrees with another.) and we may therefore now turn to the question, What insight into the origin of these proverbs and their collection do the observations made afford?

From the numerous repetitions of proverbs and portions of proverbs of the first collection of the "Proverbs of Solomon" in the Hezekiahcollection, as well as from another reason stated at the end of the foregoing section of our inquiry, we conclude that the two collections were by different authors; in other words, that they had not both "the men of Hezekiah" for their authors. It is true that the repetitions in themselves do not prove anything against the oneness of their authorship for there are within the several collections, and even within 9-1 (cf. Prov 6:20 with 1:8; 8:10f. with 3:14f.), repetitions, notwithstanding the oneness of their authorship. But if two collections of proverbs are in so many various ways different in their character, as 10:1-22:16 and 25-29, then the previous probability rises almost to a certainty by such repetitions.

From the form, for the most part anomalous, in which the Hezekiahcollection presents the proverbs and portions of proverbs which are found also in the first collection, and from their being otherwise independent, we further conclude that "the men of Hezekiah" did not borrow from the first collection, but formed it from other sources. But since one does not understand why "the men of Hezekiah" should have omitted so great a number of genuine Solomonic proverbs which remain, after deducting the proportionally few that have been repeated (for this omission is not to be explained by saying that they selected those that were appropriate and wholesome for their time), we are further justified in the conclusion that the other collection was known to them as one current in their time. Their object was, indeed, not to supplement this older collection; they rather regarded their undertaking as a similar people's book, which they wished to place side by side with that collection without making it superfluous. The difference of the selection in the two collections has its whole directing occasion in the difference of the intention. The first collection begins (Prov 10:1) with the proverb- A wise son maketh glad his father, And a foolish son is the grief of his mother; the second (25:2) with the proverb- It is the glory of God to conceal a thing, And the glory of kings to search out a matter.

The one collection is a book for youth, to whom it is dedicated in the extended introduction, Prov 1:7-9:18; the second is a people's book suited to the time of Hezekiah ("Solomon's Wisdom in Hezekiah's days," as Stier has named it), and therefore it takes its start not, like the first, from the duties of the child, but from those of the king. If in the two collections everything does not stand in conscious relation to these different objects, yet the collectors at least have, from the commencement to the close (cf. 22:15 with 29:26), these objects before their eyes.

As to the time at which the first collection was made, the above considerations also afford us some materials for forming a judgment.

Several pairs of proverbs which it contains present to us essentially the same sayings in older and more recent forms. Keil regards the proverbs also that appear less original as old-Solomonic, and remarks that one and the same poet does not always give expression to the same thoughts with the same pregnant brevity and excellence, and affirms that changes and reproductions of separate proverbs may proceed even from Solomon himself. This is possible; but if we consider that even Davidic psalms have been imitated, and that in the "Words of the Wise" Solomonic proverbs are imitated-moreover, that proverbs especially are subject to changes, and invite to imitation and transformation-we shall find it to be improbable.

Rather we would suppose, that between the publication of the proverbs of Solomon and the preparation of the collection 10-22:16 a considerable time elapsed, during which the old-Solomonic Mashal had in the mouths of the people and of poets acquired a multitude of accretions, and that the collector had without hesitation gathered together such indirect Solomonic proverbs with those that were directly Solomonic. But did not then the 3000 Solomonic proverbs afford to him scope enough? We must answer this question in the negative; for if that vast number of Solomonic proverbs was equal in moral-religious worth to those that have been preserved to us, then neither the many repetitions within the first collection nor the proportional poverty of the second can be explained.

The "men of Hezekiah" made their collection of Solomonic proverbs nearly 300 years after Solomon's time; but there is no reason to suppose that the old book of the Proverbs of Solomon had disappeared at that time.

Much rather we may with probability conclude, from the subjects to which several proverbs of these collections extend (husbandry, war, court life, etc.), and from Solomon's love for the manifold forms of natural and of social life, that his 3000 proverbs would not have afforded much greater treasures than these before us. But if the first collection was made at a time in which the old-Solomonic proverbs had been already considerably multiplied by new combinations, accretions, and imitations, then probably a more suitable time for their origination could not be than that of Jehoshaphat, which was more related to the time of Solomon than to that of David. The personality of Jehoshaphat, inclined toward the promotion of the public worship of God, the edification of the people, the administration of justice; the dominion of the house of David recognised and venerated far and wide among neighbouring peoples; the tendencies of that time towards intercourse with distant regions; the deep peace which followed the subjugation of the confederated nations-all these are features which stamped the time of Jehoshaphat as a copy of that of Solomon.

Hence we are to expect in it the fostering care of the Chokma. If the author of the introduction and editor of the older book of Proverbs lived after Solomon and before Hezekiah, then the circumstances of the case most suitably determine his time as at the beginning of the reign of Jehoshaphat, some seventy years after Solomon's death.

If in 1-9 it is frequently said that wisdom was seen openly in the streets and ways, this agrees with 2 Chron 17:7-9, where it is said that princes, priests, and Levites, sent out by Jehoshaphat (compare the Carolingian missi), went forth into the towns of Judah with the book of the law in their hands as teachers of the people, and with 2 Chron 19:4, where it is stated that Jehoshaphat himself "went out through the people from Beersheba to Mount Ephraim, and brought them back unto the Lord God of their fathers." We have an evidence of the fondness for allegorical forms of address at that time in 2 Kings 14:8-11 (2 Chron 25:17-21), which is so far favourable to the idea that the allegorizing author of 1-9 belonged to that epoch of history.

This also agrees with the time of Jehoshaphat, that in the first collection the kingdom appears in its bright side, adorned with righteousness (Prov 14:35; 16:10,12-13; 20:8), wisdom (20:26), grace and truth (20:28), love to the good (22:11), divine guidance (21:1), and in the height of power (16:14- 15; 19:12); while in the second collection, which immediately begins with a series of the king's sayings, the kingdom is seen almost only (with exception of 29:14) on its dark side, and is represented under the destructive dominion of tyranny (28:15-16; 29:2), of oppressive taxation (29:4), of the Camarilla (25:5; 29:12), and of multiplied authorities (28:2).

Elster is right when he remarks, that in 10-22:16 the kingdom in its actual state corresponds to its ideal, and the warning against the abuse of royal power lies remote. If these proverbs more distinguishably than those in 25-29 bear the physiognomy of the time of David and Solomon, so, on the other hand, the time of Jehoshaphat, the son and successor of Asa, is favourable to their collection; while in the time of Hezekiah, the son and successor of Ahaz, and father and predecessor of Manasseh, in which, through the sin of Ahaz, negotiations with the world-kingdom began, that cloudy aspect of the kingdom which is borne by the second supplement, 24:23-25, was brought near.

Thus between Solomon and Hezekiah, and probably under Jehoshaphat, the older Book of Proverbs contained in 1-24:22 first appeared. The "Proverbs of Solomon," Prov 10:1-22:16, which formed the principal part, the very kernel of it, were enclosed on the one side, at their commencement, by the lengthened introduction 1:7-9:18, in which the collector announces himself as a highly gifted teacher and as the instrument of the Spirit of revelation, and on the other side are shut in at their close by "the Words of the Wise," 22:17-24:34. The author, indeed, does not announce 1:6 such a supplement of "the Words of the Wise;" but after these words in the title of the book, he leads us to expect it. The introduction to the supplement 22:17-21 sounds like an echo of the larger introduction, and corresponds to the smaller compass of the supplement.

The work bears on the whole the stamp of a unity; for even in the last proverb with which it closes (Prov 24:21f., "My son, fear thou Jahve and the king," etc.), there still sounds the same key-note which the author had struck at the commencement. A later collector, belonging to the time subsequent to Hezekiah, enlarged the work by the addition of the Hezekiah-portion, and by a short supplement of "the Words of the Wise," which he introduces, according to the law of analogy, after 22:17-24:22.

The harmony of the superscriptions 24:23; 25:1, favours at least the supposition that these supplements are the work of one hand. The circumstance that "the Words of the Wise," 22:17-24:22, in two of their maxims refer to the older collection of Solomonic proverbs, but, on the contrary, that "the Words of the Wise," 24:23ff., refer in 24:23 to the Hezekiah- collection, and in 24:33f. to the introduction 1:7-9:18, strengthens the supposition that with 24:23 a second half of the book, added by another hand, begins.

There is no reason for not attributing the appendix 30-31 to this second collector; perhaps he seeks, as already remarked above, to render by means of it the conclusion of the extended Book of Proverbs uniform with that of the older book. Like the older collection of "Proverbs of Solomon," so also now the Hezekiah'-collection has "Proverbs of Solomon," so also now the Hezekiah-collection has "Proverbs of the Wise" on the right and on the left, and the king of proverbial poetry stands in the midst of a worth